Abstract
Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) are largely heterogeneous and functionally uncharacterized. Here, using FANTOM5 cap analysis of gene expression (CAGE) data, we integrate multiple transcript collections to generate a comprehensive atlas of 27,919 human lncRNA genes with high-confidence 5′ ends and expression profiles across 1,829 samples from the major human primary cell types and tissues. Genomic and epigenomic classification of these lncRNAs reveals that most intergenic lncRNAs originate from enhancers rather than from promoters. Incorporating genetic and expression data, we show that lncRNAs overlapping trait-associated single nucleotide polymorphisms are specifically expressed in cell types relevant to the traits, implicating these lncRNAs in multiple diseases. We further demonstrate that lncRNAs overlapping expression quantitative trait loci (eQTL)-associated single nucleotide polymorphisms of messenger RNAs are co-expressed with the corresponding messenger RNAs, suggesting their potential roles in transcriptional regulation. Combining these findings with conservation data, we identify 19,175 potentially functional lncRNAs in the human genome.
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Acknowledgements
FANTOM5 was made possible by research grants for the RIKEN Omics Science Center and the Innovative Cell Biology by Innovative Technology (Cell Innovation Program) from the MEXT to Y.H. It was also supported by research grants for the RIKEN Preventive Medicine and Diagnosis Innovation Program (RIKEN PMI) to Y.H. and the RIKEN Centre for Life Science Technologies, Division of Genomic Technologies (RIKEN CLST (DGT)) from the MEXT, Japan. A.R.R.F. is supported by a Senior Cancer Research Fellowship from the Cancer Research Trust, the MACA Ride to Conquer Cancer and the Australian Research Council’s Discovery Projects funding scheme (DP160101960). S.D. is supported by award number U54HG007004 from the National Human Genome Research Institute of the National Institutes of Health, funding from the Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (MINECO) under grant number BIO2011-26205, and SEV-2012-0208 from the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness. Y.A.M. is supported by the Russian Science Foundation, grant 15-14-30002. We thank RIKEN GeNAS for generation of the CAGE and RNA-seq libraries, the Netherlands Brain Bank for brain materials, the RIKEN BioResource Centre for providing cell lines and all members of the FANTOM5 consortium for discussions, in particular H. Ashoor, M. Frith, R. Guigo, A. Tanzer, E. Wood, H. Jia, K. Bailie, J. Harrow, E. Valen, R. Andersson, K. Vitting-Seerup, A. Sandelin, M. Taylor, J. Shin, R. Mori, C. Mungall and T. Meehan.
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The manuscript was written by A.R.R.F., C.C.H., J.A.R. and N.B. with help from P.C., E.A. and M.L. C.C.H., J.A.R., J.H., N.B., O.J.L.R., Y.H., P.C. and A.R.R.F. are core authors for the lncRNA work. P.H., M.B., C.A.W., S.K. and Y.N. provided samples. C.C.H. performed most of the analyses with help from others as listed below. C.C.H., N.B., J.A.R., O.R., J.G., A.M.B., S.D., A.H. and T.L.: RNA-seq assembly. C.C.H., J.A.R. N.B., A.T.C. and M.J. L.d.H.: coding potential assessment. C.C.H. devised and implemented the TIEScore, transcript model integration and CAT. S.S., C.C.H. and E.D. performed the GWAS and eQTL analyses. C.C.H., T.A. and Y.A.M. analysed TIRs. C.C.H. and T.M.P.: expression specificity analysis. L.L.: discussions in planning. J.H. implemented the web tool. M.I. and P.C. generated CAGE data. S.N. generated the RNA-seq. H.K. and T.L. clustered the CAGE data. C.C.H., N.B. and J.S. made ZENBU configurations. M.L., H.K., T.K. and I.A.: data handling. C.W.Y. curated cell-type and trait associations. M.M. helped with cell-type enrichment analysis. D.T. helped with repeats analysis. FANTOM5 headquarters: Y.H., A.R.R.F., P.C., M.I., C.O.D., H.S., T.L. and E.A. P.C., Y.H. and A.R.R.F. conceived the project and managed FANTOM5. The scientific coordinator was A.R.R.F. and the general organizer was Y.H.
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Reviewer Information Nature thanks M. Gerstein, J. Rinn and the other anonymous reviewer(s) for their contribution to the peer review of this work.
Extended data figures and tables
Extended Data Figure 1 Building a 5′ complete lncRNA catalogue.
a, Integration of CAGE and transcript models. CAGE clusters were used to integrate transcript models from various sources and their 5′ completeness was assessed on the basis of TIEScore. b, Identification of lncRNAs. TIEScore identified 59,110 genes and coding potential assessment further identified 27,919 lncRNAs in FANTOM CAT at the robust TIEScore cutoff. c, Categorization of lncRNAs. LncRNAs were annotated according to their gene orientation (that is, genomic context) and DHS type23 (that is, epigenomic context) and then categorized into divergent p-lncRNAs (purple), intergenic p-lncRNAs (blue), e-lncRNAs (green) and other lncRNAs (grey). d, Overlaps between FANTOM CAT and other lncRNA catalogues. e, LncRNA gene models outside FANTOM CAT are 5′ incomplete. LncRNAs found commonly in both catalogues (grey), or only in FANTOM CAT (red), show stronger evidence of transcription initiation (DHS, H3K4me1, H3K4me3 and PolII ChIP-seq23) and conservation (phastCons38) than those found only in other lncRNA catalogues (blue, green or yellow).
Extended Data Figure 2 FANTOM CAT is more 5′ complete than other lncRNA catalogues.
a, FANTOM CAT lncRNA TSS are well-supported. The 5′ ends of FANTOM CAT lncRNAs (first column) have stronger transcriptomic, epigenomic and genomic evidence of transcription initiation than the 5′ ends of lncRNA models in the Human BodyMap 2.0 (ref. 4), miTranscriptome3 and GENCODE release 25 (ref. 19) (second column). In b and c, the box plots show the median, quartiles and Tukey whiskers of the estimates of FDR of complete 5′ ends (b) and number of 5′ complete lncRNA genes (c) on the basis of ten sets of gold standard TSS and non-TSS regions (Methods). b, FDR of complete 5′ ends. c, Estimated number of 5′ complete lncRNA genes (total number of genes × [1 − FDR]). d, Validation rate of gene models using RAMPAGE. RAMPAGE data sets25,50 (n = 207, Methods) were used to validate the lncRNA transcripts in FANTOM CAT and other catalogues (left). Transcripts containing full consensus CDS (CCDS transcripts) were used for control (right). The exon of a transcript is detected by RAMPAGE31 if it overlaps ≥3 RAMPAGE 3′ ends. Transcript detection rates of all catalogues were plotted (upper). About 95% of lncRNA transcripts in the robust FANTOM CAT can be detected, which is slightly higher than that of GENCODE release 25 (~92%). The TSS of a detected transcript is validated by RAMPAGE if it is located within the proximity of a RAMPAGE 5′ end (for example, from 0 to 500 bp, x axis, lower). At 100 bp, ~95% of lncRNA transcripts in the robust FANTOM CAT can be validated, versus ~85% for that of GENCODE release 25. We note the percentages of CCDS transcripts in FANTOM CAT and GENCODE release 25 detected or validated by RAMPAGE are similar, with the robust and stringent FANTOM CAT catalogues performing slightly better.
Extended Data Figure 3 Revision of lncRNA models in GENCODE.
a, An example of improved TSS annotation of a GENCODE release 25 lncRNA gene. The 5′ ends of GENCODE release 25 annotated lncRNA transcripts of TUG1 (ENSG00000253352) are distant from the region of strong CAGE signal, while FANTOM CAT added extra transcripts accurately start from the proximal CAGE signal summit. b, An example of bridged gene models of GENCODE release 25 lncRNA genes. In GENCODE release 25, the locus was annotated with three short lncRNA genes; FANTOM CAT bridged these short lncRNA transcript models into a long transcript model (RP11-973H7.4, ENSG00000267654) starting from the proximal CAGE signal summit.
Extended Data Figure 4 Heterogeneity among lncRNA gene categories.
a, Epigenomic features surrounding TSS. The y axis refers to the fraction of TIR overlaps with peaks of the corresponding epigenomic signal from the Roadmap Epigenome Consortium23. b, Genomic features surrounding TSS. Sequence features conducive to generating longer transcripts are enrichment of 5′ splice site (5′ SS) and depletion of polyadenylation sites (PAS). Sequence features associated with transcription initiation include CpG islands, INR (initiator) motif and TATA box motif. c, Core promoter motifs. Grey dashed lines indicate whole-genome background.
Extended Data Figure 5 Transposons at TIRs.
a, Percentages of genes with conserved and unconserved TIR (as defined in Fig. 1c) and their overlap with various classes of transposons. b, Enrichment of retrotransposons at unconserved TIR. The Venn diagrams show the overlap between unconserved TIR, DNA transposons and retrotransposons. Retrotransposons are significantly enriched in unconserved TIR of all gene classes (one-tailed Fisher’s exact test, P < 0.05).
Extended Data Figure 6 Expression landscape of lncRNAs in primary cells.
a, Expression level and specificity. Abbreviation cpm is relative log expression (rle) normalized count per millions. The maximum expression level (log2 cpm) and expression specificity (Chao–Shen’s corrected Shannon entropy59) of genes among 69 primary cell facets10 were plotted. Box plots show the median (dashed lines), quartiles and Tukey whiskers. b, Percentage of genes within categories expressed within primary cell facets. The circles represent the mean among samples within a facet and the error bars represent 99.99% confidence intervals. Dashed lines represent the means among all samples. c, Number of lncRNA genes expressed within primary cell facets. Dashed line represents the mean among all samples. The x axis is sorted on the basis of number of lncRNA genes expressed. A gene is considered as ‘expressed’ when cpm ≥ 0.01.
Extended Data Figure 7 Association of cell-type-enriched genes with trait-associated genes of different biological themes.
A detailed view of blocks from Fig. 2a. The dendrograms were coloured as in Fig. 2a. a, ‘Immune system’ cell types and ‘infection and immunity’ traits. b, ‘Hepato-intestinal system’ cell types and ‘hepatic function’ traits. c, ‘Pigmented cells’ cell types and ‘pigmentation’ traits. d, ‘Non-immune blood cells’ cell types and ‘blood homeostasis’ traits. e, ‘Cardiovascular system’ cell types and ‘cardiovascular function’ traits.
Extended Data Figure 8 LncRNA AP001057.1 is associated with classical monocytes and implicated in immune diseases.
a, Genomic view of AP001057.1 (ENSG00000232124) in the ZENBU genome browser43. The strongest TSS of AP001057.1 overlaps with an enhancer DHS. The locus overlaps with fine-mapped SNPs associated with Crohn’s disease and GWAS SNPs associated with coeliac disease and inflammatory bowel disease. b, AP001057.1 is associated with classical monocytes (CL:0000860). c, AP001057.1 is significantly upregulated in monocytes upon stimulation with various immunogenic agents (FDR < 0.05 in edgeR58, highlighted in red and indicated with asterisks). Note: we performed differential expression analysis to identify lncRNAs that are dynamically regulated upon stimulation, infection or differentiation on the basis of 25 manually curated series of FANTOM5 samples (Supplementary Table 18 and Methods), and the results are available in Supplementary Table 19. Figures were captured (with slight modifications) from the online resource at http://fantom.gsc.riken.jp/cat/v1/#/genes/ENSG00000232124.1.
Extended Data Figure 9 Selective constraints and enrichment of GWAS trait and eQTL-associated SNPs at lncRNA loci.
a, Selective constraints between species (phastCons38) and within human population (derived allele frequency39). b, Enrichment of GWAS SNPs. Only lead GWAS SNPs15 were used (Methods). c, Enrichment of PICS17 fine-mapped SNPs in global (all versus all) or focused (immune versus immune) analysis (Methods). d, Enrichment of GTEx eQTL SNPs16 associated with expression of mRNAs. Circles represent means and the error bars represent their 99.99% confidence intervals.
Extended Data Figure 10 Co-expression of various gene pairs linked by eQTL SNPs.
We searched for gene loci that overlap eQTL SNPs associated with expression variation of mRNAs (as identified by GTEx16). Gene loci overlapping these SNPs were then paired with the corresponding mRNA and their expression correlation across the FANTOM5 expression atlas was investigated. Rows compare the gene types overlapping the SNPs. a, mRNAs; b, all lncRNAs; c, divergent p-lncRNAs; d, intergenic p-lncRNAs; e, e-lncRNAs. Columns compare the relative orientation of the gene pairs and the position of the SNPs. The term ‘all’ refers to all orientations of the gene pairs and positions of the SNPs pooled. Gene pairs were binned on the basis of the number of SNPs linking the pair (bin = 5 SNPs). The data points represent the mean of absolute Spearman’s rho and the error bars represent its 99.99% confidence intervals. At each bin, the number of pairs plotted is the same for the three pair types as indicated.
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Hon, CC., Ramilowski, J., Harshbarger, J. et al. An atlas of human long non-coding RNAs with accurate 5′ ends. Nature 543, 199–204 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1038/nature21374
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/nature21374
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