Abstract
The toxic release of aldehyde vapours during a hazardous material (HAZMAT) incident primarily results in respiratory concerns for the unprotected public. However, skin absorption may be an important concurrent exposure route that is poorly understood for this scenario. This study provides experimental data on the skin absorption properties of common aldehydes used in industry, including acetaldehyde, acrolein, benzaldehyde and formaldehyde, in gaseous or vapour form using an adapted in vitro technique. Two of the four tested aldehydes were found to penetrate the skin in appreciable amounts following 30-min exposure at HAZMAT relevant atmospheric concentrations: acetaldehyde (5.29 ± 3.24 µg/cm2) and formaldehyde (3.45 ± 2.58 µg/cm2). Whereas only low levels of acrolein (0.480 ± 0.417 µg/cm2) and benzaldehyde (1.46 ± 0.393 µg/cm2) skin penetration was noted. The aldehydes demonstrated differing levels of interaction with fabric. Formaldehyde and acetaldehyde adsorbed strongly to denim, whereas benzaldehyde and acrolein displayed no sink properties. However, denim was shown to be an initial protective barrier and reduced penetration outcomes for all aldehydes. This study provides important information to assist first responders and confirms the relevance of using physicochemical properties (e.g. solubility, molecular weight, partition coefficient) to predict skin permeation potential in the absence of empirical data during HAZMAT incidents involving different types of aldehydes.
This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution
Access options
Subscribe to this journal
Receive 6 print issues and online access
$259.00 per year
only $43.17 per issue
Buy this article
- Purchase on Springer Link
- Instant access to full article PDF
Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Gaskin S, Heath L, Pisaniello D, Evans R, Edwards JW, Logan M, et al. Hydrogen sulphide and phosphine interactions with human skin in vitro: application to hazardous material incident decision making for skin decontamination. Toxicol Ind Health. 2017;33:289–96.
Levitin HW, Siegelson HJ, Dickinson S, Halpern P, Haraguchi Y, Nocera A, et al. Decontamination of mass casualties—re-evaluating existing dogma. Prehosp Disaster Med. 2003;18:200–7.
Gaskin S, Heath L, Pisaniello D, Edwards JW, Logan M, Baxter C. Dermal absorption of fumigant gases during HAZMAT incident exposure scenarios—ethyl bromide, sulfuryl fluoride, and chloropicrin. Toxicol Ind Health. 2017;33:547–54.
Chilcott RP. Managing mass casualties and decontamination. Environ Int. 2014;72:37–45.
Kuykendall JR. 8.16—aldehydes A2. In: McQueen CA, editor. Comprehensive toxicology. 2nd ed. Oxford: Elsevier; 2010. p. 291–330. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-046884-6.00916-7.
Occupational Safety and Health Administration. Fatality and Catastrophe Investigation Summaries Dataset. obtained from Occupational Safety and Health Administration Fatality and Catastrophe Investigation Summaries, Washington; 2018. https://www.osha.gov/pls/imis/accidentsearch.html.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Incidents dataset obtained from National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration IncidentNews Database; 2018. https://incidentnews.noaa.gov/search/date.
Brandt-Rauf PW, Fallon LF, Tarantini T, Idema C, Andrews L. Health hazards of fire fighters: exposure assessment. Br J Ind Med. 1988;45:606.
Bolstad-Johnson DM, Burgess JL, Crutchfield CD, Storment S, Gerkin R, Wilson JR. Characterization of firefighter exposures during fire overhaul. AIHA J. 2000;61:636–41.
Caux C, O’Brien C, Viau C. Determination of firefighter exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and benzene during fire fighting using measurement of biological indicators. Appl Occup Environ Hyg. 2002;17:379–86.
Fent KW, Eisenberg J, Snawder J, Sammons D, Pleil JD, Stiegel MA, et al. Systemic exposure to PAHs and benzene in firefighters suppressing controlled structure fires. Ann Occup Hyg. 2014;58:830–45.
Edelman P, Osterloh J, Pirkle J, Caudill SP, Grainger J, Jones R, et al. Biomonitoring of chemical exposure among New York City firefighters responding to the World Trade Center fire and collapse. Environ Health Perspect. 2003;111:1906–11.
Dellarco VL. A mutagenicity assessment of acetaldehyde. Mutat Res Rev Genet Toxicol. 1988;195:1–20.
Sithu SD, Srivastava S, Siddiqui MA, Vladykovskaya E, Riggs DW, Conklin DJ, et al. Exposure to acrolein by inhalation causes platelet activation. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol. 2010;248:100–10.
Final report on the safety assessment of benzaldehyde 1. Int J Toxicol. 2006;25:11–27.
Kim K-H, Jahan SA, Lee J-T. Exposure to formaldehyde and its potential human health hazards. J Environ Sci Health Part C. 2011;29:277–99.
Gomes R, Liteplo RG, Meek ME. Acrolein: hazard characterization and exposure–response analysis. J Environ Sci Health, Part C. 2001;19:23–43.
Lacroix M, Burckel H, Foussereau J, Grosshans E, Cavelier C, Limasset JC, et al. Irritant dermatitis from diallylglycol carbonate monomer in the optical industry. Contact Dermat. 1976;2:183–95.
Faroon O, Roney N, Taylor J, Ashizawa A, Lumpkin M, Plewak D. Acrolein health effects. Toxicol Ind Health. 2008;24:447–90.
Lodén M. The in vitro permeability of human skin to benzene, ethylene glycol, formaldehyde, and n-hexane. Acta Pharmacol Toxicol. 1986;58:382–9.
Hafeez F, Chiang A, Hui X, Maibach H. Role of partition coefficients in determining the percutaneous penetration of salicylic acid and formaldehyde under varying occlusion durations. Drug Dev Ind Pharm. 2014;40:1395–401.
Stotts J, Ely WJ. Induction of human skin sensitization to ethanol. J Invest Dermatol. 1977;69:219–22.
Wilkin JK, Fortner G. Ethnic contact urticaria to alcohol. Contact Dermat. 1985;12:118–20.
Sato A, Obata K, Ikeda K, Ohkoshi K, Okumura H, Ozawa N, et al. Evaluation of human skin irritation by carboxylic acids, alcohols, esters and aldehydes, with nitrocellulose-replica method and closed patch testing. Contact Dermat. 1996;34:12–6.
Haddock NF, Wilkin JK. Cutaneous reactions to lower aliphatic alcohols before and during disulfiram therapy. Arch Dermatol. 1982;118:157–9.
Barry BW, Harrison SM, Dugard PH. Vapour and liquid diffusion of model penetrants through human skin; correlation with thermodynamic activity. J Pharm Pharmacol. 1985;37:226–36.
Gaskin S, Pisaniello D, Edwards JW, Bromwich D, Reed S, Logan M, et al. In-vitro methods for testing dermal absorption and penetration of toxic gases. Toxicol Mech Methods. 2014;24:70–2.
Heath L, Gaskin S, Pisaniello D, Crea J, Logan M, Baxter C. Skin absorption of ethylene oxide gas following exposures relevant to HAZMAT incidents. Ann Work Expo Health. 2017;61:589–95.
Lawrence JN. Electrical resistance and tritiated water permeability as indicators of barrier integrity of in vitro human skin. Toxicol Vitr. 1997;11:241–9.
Diembeck W, Beck H, Benech-Kieffer F, Courtellemont P, Dupuis J, Lovell W, et al. Test guidelines for in vitro assessment of dermal absorption and percutaneous penetration of cosmetic ingredients. Food Chem Toxicol. 1999;37:191–205.
Davies DJ, Ward RJ, Heylings JR. Multi-species assessment of electrical resistance as a skin integrity marker for in vitro percutaneous absorption studies. Toxicol Vitr. 2004;18:351–8.
Pisaniello D. The generation of test atmospheres for occupational hygiene laboratory evaluation of organic vapour monitoring devices report prepared for the Occupational Health and Radiation Control Branch, Occupational Health and Radiation Control Branch, South Australian Health Commission, Adelaide; 1988.
Frasch FHA. Random walk model of skin permeation. Risk Anal. 2002;22:265–76.
Barry BW, Harrison SM, Dugard PH. Correlation of thermodynamic activity and vapour diffusion through human skin for the model compound, benzyl alcohol. J Pharm Pharmacol. 1985;37:84–90.
Driver J, Ross J, Mihlan G, Lunchick C, Landenberger B. Derivation of single layer clothing penetration factors from the pesticide handlers exposure database. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol. 2007;49:125–37.
Chao K-P, Wang P, Chen C-P, Tang P-Y. Assessment of skin exposure to N,N-dimethylformamide and methyl ethylketone through chemical protective gloves and decontamination of gloves for reuse purposes. Sci Total Environ. 2011;409:1024–32.
Berthet A, Hopf NB, Miles A, Spring P, Charrière N, Garrigou A, et al. Human skin in vitro permeation of bentazon and isoproturon formulations with or without protective clothing suit. Arch Toxicol. 2014;88:77–88.
Protano C, Guidotti M, Vitali M. Performance of different work clothing types for reducing skin exposure to pesticides during open field treatment. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol. 2009;83:115–9.
Dickson EFG. Estimates of percutaneous toxicity of sulfur mustard vapor suitable for use in protective equipment standards. J Toxicol Environ Health Part A. 2008;71:1382–91.
Heck HD, Casanova-Schmitz M, Dodd PB, Schachter EN, Witek TJ, Tosun T. Formaldehyde (CH2O) concentrations in the blood of humans and Fischer-344 rats exposed to CH2O under controlled conditions. Am Ind Hyg Assoc J. 1985;46:1–3.
Casanova M, d’A. Heck H, Everitt JI, Harrington WW, Popp JA. Formaldehyde concentrations in the blood of rhesus monkeys after inhalation exposure. Food Chem Toxicol. 1988;26:715–6.
European Food Safety Authority. Endogenous formaldehyde turnover in humans compared with exogenous contribution from food sources. EFSA J. 2014;12:3550.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the Australian Department of Prime Minister and Cabinet, and the Combating Terrorism Technical Support Office, Department of Defence, US Government under the counterterrorism funding scheme (Grant No. CB-4433).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Additional information
Publisher’s note: Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Thredgold, L., Gaskin, S., Heath, L. et al. Understanding skin absorption of common aldehyde vapours from exposure during hazardous material incidents. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol 30, 537–546 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41370-019-0127-4
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41370-019-0127-4