Abstract
Human exposure studies, compared with cell and animal models, are heavily relied upon to study the associations between health effects in humans and air pollutant inhalation. Human studies vary in exposure methodology, with some work conducted in controlled settings, whereas other studies are conducted in ambient environments. Human studies can also vary in the health metrics explored, as there exists a myriad of health effect end points commonly measured. In this review, we compiled mini reviews of the most commonly used noninvasive health effect end points that are suitable for panel studies of air pollution, broken into cardiovascular end points, respiratory end points, and biomarkers of effect from biological specimens. Pertinent information regarding each health end point and the suggested methods for mobile collection in the field are assessed. In addition, the clinical implications for each health end point are summarized, along with the factors identified that can modify each measurement. Finally, the important research findings regarding each health end point and air pollutant exposures were reviewed. It appeared that most of the adverse health effects end points explored were found to positively correlate with pollutant levels, although differences in study design, pollutants measured, and study population were found to influence the magnitude of these effects. Thus, this review is intended to act as a guide for researchers interested in conducting human exposure studies of air pollutants while in the field, although there can be a wider application for using these end points in many epidemiological study designs.
This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution
Access options
Subscribe to this journal
Receive 6 print issues and online access
$259.00 per year
only $43.17 per issue
Buy this article
- Purchase on Springer Link
- Instant access to full article PDF
Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Pickering TG, Hall JE, Appel LJ, Falkner BE, Graves J, Hill MN et al. Recommendations for blood pressure measurement in humans and experimental animals: Part 1: blood pressure measurement in humans: a statement for professionals from the Subcommittee of Professional and Public Education of the American Heart Association Council on High Blood Pressure Research. Hypertension 2005; 45: 142–161.
Group JJW. Guidelines for the clinical use of 24 hour ambulatory blood pressure monitoring (ABPM) (JCS 2010): – digest version –. Circ J 2012; 76: 508–519.
Chobanian AV, Bakris GL, Black HR, Cushman WC, Green LA, Izzo JL et al. Seventh Report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure. Hypertension 2003; 42: 1206–1252.
Netea RT, Lenders JW, Smits P, Thien T . Both body and arm position significantly influence blood pressure measurement. J Hum Hypertens 2003; 17: 459–462.
Eşer I, Khorshid L, Güneş UY, Demir Y . The effect of different body positions on blood pressure. J Clin Nurs 2007; 16: 137–140.
Ogedegbe G, Pickering T . Principles and techniques of blood pressure measurement. Cardiol Clin 2010; 28: 571–586.
Vasan RS, Larson MG, Leip EP, Evans JC, O'Donnell CJ, Kannel WB et al. Impact of high-normal blood pressure on the risk of cardiovascular disease. N Engl J Med 2001; 345: 1291–1297.
Kshirsagar A, Carpenter M, Bang H, Wyatt S, Colindres R . Blood pressure usually considered normal is associated with an elevated risk of cardiovascular disease. Am J Med 2006; 119: 133–141.
Kannel W, Vasan R, Levy D . Is the relation of systolic blood pressure to risk of cardiovascular disease continuous and graded, or are there critical values? Hypertension 2003; 42: 453–456.
Cook N, Cohen J, Hebert P, Taylor J, H C . Implications of small reductions in diastolic blood-pressure for primary prevention. Arch Int Med 1995; 155: 701–709.
Rich DQ, Kipen HM, Huang W, Wang G, Wang Y, Zhu et al. Association between changes in air pollution levels during the Beijing Olympics and biomarkers of inflammation and thrombosis in healthy young adults. JAMA 2012; 307: 2068–2078.
Cosselman KE, Krishnan RM, Oron AP, Jansen K, Peretz A, Sullivan JH et al. Blood pressure response to controlled diesel exhaust exposure in human subjects. Hypertension 2012; 59: 943–948.
Baccarelli A, Barretta F, Dou C, Zhang X, McCracken JP, DÃaz A et al. Effects of particulate air pollution on blood pressure in a highly exposed population in Beijing, China: a repeated-measure study. Environ Health 2011; 10: 108.
Sérgio Chiarelli P, Amador Pereira LA, Nascimento Saldiva PH, Ferreira Filho C, Bueno Garcia ML, Ferreira Braga AL et al. The association between air pollution and blood pressure in traffic controllers in Santo André, São Paulo, Brazil. Environ Res 2011; 111: 650–655.
Tsai DH, Riediker M, Wuerzner G, Maillard M, Marques-Vidal P, Paccaud F et al. Short-term increase in particulate matter blunts nocturnal blood pressure dipping and daytime urinary sodium excretion. Hypertension 2012; 60: 1061–1069.
Brook R, Bard R, Burnett R, Shin H, Vette A, Croghan C et al. Differences in blood pressure and vascular responses associated with ambient fine particulate matter exposures measured at the personal versus community level. Occup Environ Med 2011; 68: 224–230.
Brook RD, Urch B, Dvonch JT, Bard RL, Speck M, Keeler G et al. Insights into the mechanisms and mediators of the effects of air pollution exposure on blood pressure and vascular function in healthy humans. Hypertension 2009; 54: 659–667.
Urch B, Silverman F, Corey P, Brook JR, Lukic KZ, Rajagopalan S et al. Acute blood pressure responses in healthy adults during controlled air pollution exposures. Environ Health Perspect 2005; 113: 1052–1055.
Gong H, Linn WS, Sioutas C, Terrell SL, Clark KW, Anderson KR et al. Controlled exposures of healthy and asthmatic volunteers to concentrated ambient fine particles in Los Angeles. Inhal Toxicol 2003; 15: 305–325.
de Paula Santos U, Braga AL, Giorgi DM, Pereira LA, Grupi CJ, Lin CA et al. Effects of air pollution on blood pressure and heart rate variability: a panel study of vehicular traffic controllers in the city of São Paulo, Brazil. Eur Heart J 2005; 26: 193–200.
Wu S, Deng F, Huang J, Wang H, Shima M, Wang X et al. Blood pressure changes and chemical constituents of particulate air pollution: results from the healthy volunteer natural relocation (HVNR) study. Environ Health Perspect 2013; 121: 66–72.
Langrish JP, Mills NL, Chan JK, Leseman DL, Aitken RJ, Fokkens PH et al. Beneficial cardiovascular effects of reducing exposure to particulate air pollution with a simple facemask. Part Fibre Toxicol 2009; 6: 8.
Wing S, Horton RA, Rose KM . Air pollution from industrial swine operations and blood pressure of neighboring residents. Environ Health Perspect 2013; 121: 92–96.
Brook RD, Xu X, Bard RL, Dvonch JT, Morishita M, Kaciroti N et al. Reduced metabolic insulin sensitivity following sub-acute exposures to low levels of ambient fine particulate matter air pollution. Sci Total Environ 2013; 448: 66–71.
Linn WS, Gong H, Clark KW, Anderson KR . Day-to-day particulate exposures and health changes in Los Angeles area residents with severe lung disease. J Air Waste Manag Assoc 1999; 49: 108–115.
Zanobetti A, Canner MJ, Stone PH, Schwartz J, Sher D, Eagan-Bengston E et al. Ambient pollution and blood pressure in cardiac rehabilitation patients. Circulation 2004; 110: 2184–2189.
Mar TF, Koenig JQ, Jansen K, Sullivan J, Kaufman J, Trenga CA et al. Fine particulate air pollution and cardiorespiratory effects in the elderly. Epidemiology 2005; 16: 681–687.
Liu L, Ruddy T, Dalipaj M, Poon R, Szyszkowicz M, You H et al. Effects of indoor, outdoor, and personal exposure to particulate air pollution on cardiovascular physiology and systemic mediators in seniors. J Occup Environ Med 2009; 51: 1088–1098.
Hoffmann B, Luttmann-Gibson H, Cohen A, Zanobetti A, de Souza C, Foley C et al. Opposing effects of particle pollution, ozone, and ambient temperature on arterial blood pressure. Environ Health Perspect 2012; 120: 241–246.
Rich DQ, Zareba W, Beckett W, Hopke PK, Oakes D, Frampton MW et al. Are Ambient Ultrafine, Accumulation Mode, and Fine Particles Associated With Adverse Cardiac Responses in Patients Undergoing Cardiac Rehabilitation? Environ Health Perspect 2012; 120: 1162–1169.
Huang W, Zhu T, Pan X, Hu M, Lu SE, Lin Y et al. Air pollution and autonomic and vascular dysfunction in patients with cardiovascular disease: interactions of systemic inflammation, overweight, and gender. Am J Epidemiol 2012; 176: 117–126.
Delfino RJ, Tjoa T, Gillen DL, Staimer N, Polidori A, Arhami M et al. Traffic-related air pollution and blood pressure in elderly subjects with coronary artery disease. Epidemiology 2010; 21: 396–404.
Brauer M, Ebelt ST, Fisher TV, Brumm J, Petkau AJ, Vedal S . Exposure of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease patients to particles: respiratory and cardiovascular health effects. J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol 2001; 11: 490–500.
Jansen KL, Larson TV, Koenig JQ, Mar TF, Fields C, Stewart J et al. Associations between health effects and particulate matter and black carbon in subjects with respiratory disease. Environ Health Perspect 2005; 113: 1741–1746.
Ibald-Mulli A, Timonen KL, Peters A, Heinrich J, Wölke G, Lanki T et al. Effects of particulate air pollution on blood pressure and heart rate in subjects with cardiovascular disease: a multicenter approach. Environ Health Perspect 2004; 112: 369–377.
Liu L, Ruddy TD, Dalipaj M, Szyszkowicz M, You H, Poon R et al. Influence of personal exposure to particulate air pollution on cardiovascular physiology and biomarkers of inflammation and oxidative stress in subjects with diabetes. J Occup Environ Med 2007; 49: 258–265.
Jacobs L, Buczynska A, Walgraeve C, Delcloo A, Potgieter-Vermaak S, Van Grieken R et al. Acute changes in pulse pressure in relation to constituents of particulate air pollution in elderly persons. Environ Res 2012; 117: 60–67.
Jansen PM, Leineweber MJ, Thien T . The effect of a change in ambient temperature on blood pressure in normotensives. J Hum Hypertens 2001; 15: 113–117.
Halonen JI, Zanobetti A, Sparrow D, Vokonas PS, Schwartz J . Relationship between outdoor temperature and blood pressure. Occup Environ Med 2011; 68: 296–301.
Barnett A, Sans S, Salomaa V, Kuulasmaa K, Dobson A, Project WM . The effect of temperature on systolic blood pressure. Blood Press Monitor 2007; 12: 195–203.
Dyer AR, Elliott P . The INTERSALT study: relations of body mass index to blood pressure. INTERSALT Co-operative Research Group. J Hum Hypertens 1989; 3: 299–308.
Maric-Bilkan C, Manigrasso MB . Sex differences in hypertension: contribution of the renin-angiotensin system. Gend Med 2012; 9: 287–291.
Reckelhoff JF . Gender differences in the regulation of blood pressure. Hypertension 2001; 37: 1199–1208.
Lima LG, Moriguti JC, Ferriolli E, Lima NK . Effect of a single session of aerobic walking exercise on arterial pressure in community-living elderly individuals. Hypertens Res 2012; 35: 457–462.
Brandão Rondon MUP, Alves MJNN, Braga AMFW, Teixeira OTUN, Barretto ACP, Krieger EM et al. Postexercise blood pressure reduction in elderly hypertensive patients. J Am Coll Cardiol 2002; 39: 676–682.
MacDonald JR . Potential causes, mechanisms, and implications of post exercise hypotension. J Hum Hypertens 2002; 16: 225–236.
Baumgart P . Circadian rhythm of blood pressure: internal and external time triggers. Chronobiol Int 1991; 8: 444–450.
Sorensen M, Hvidberg M, Hoffmann B, Andersen Z, Nordsborg R, Lillelund K et al. Exposure to road traffic and railway noise and associations with blood pressure and self-reported hypertension: a cohort study. Environ Health 2011; 10: 92.
de Kluizenaar Y, Gansevoort RT, Miedema HM, de Jong PE . Hypertension and road traffic noise exposure. J Occup Environ Med 2007; 49: 484–492.
Leon Bluhm G, Berglind N, Nordling E, Rosenlund M . Road traffic noise and hypertension. Occup Environ Med 2007; 64: 122–126.
Bodin T, Albin M, Ardö J, Stroh E, Ostergren PO, Björk J . Road traffic noise and hypertension: results from a cross-sectional public health survey in southern Sweden. Environ Health 2009; 8: 38.
Barregard L, Bonde E, Ohrström E . Risk of hypertension from exposure to road traffic noise in a population-based sample. Occup Environ Med 2009; 66: 410–415.
Nelin TD, Joseph AM, Gorr MW, Wold LE . Direct and indirect effects of particulate matter on the cardiovascular system. Toxicol Lett 2012; 208: 293–299.
Task Force of the European Society of Cardiology. Heart rate variability. Standards of measurement, physiological interpretation, and clinical use. Task Force of the European Society of Cardiology and the North American Society of Pacing and Electrophysiology. Eur Heart J. 1996; 17: 354–381.
Cowan MJ . Measurement of heart rate variability. West J Nurs Res 1995; 17: 32–48 discussion 101-11.
Valentini M, Parati G . Variables influencing heart rate. Prog Cardiovasc Dis 2009; 52: 11–19.
Stein PK, Bosner MS, Kleiger RE, Conger BM . Heart rate variability: a measure of cardiac autonomic tone. Am Heart J 1994; 127: 1376–1381.
Perini R, Veicsteinas A . Heart rate variability and autonomic activity at rest and during exercise in various physiological conditions. Eur J Appl Physiol 2003; 90: 317–325.
Berntson GG, Bigger JT, Jr ., Eckberg DL, Grossman P, Kaufmann PG, Malik M et al. Heart rate variability: origins, methods, and interpretive caveats. Psychophysiology 1997; 34: 623–648.
Tsuji H, Venditti FJ, Manders ES, Evans JC, Larson MG, Feldman CL et al. Determinants of heart rate variability. J Am Coll Cardiol 1996; 28: 1539–1546.
Cowan MJ, Pike K, Burr RL . Effects of gender and age on heart rate variability in healthy individuals and in persons after sudden cardiac arrest. J Electrocardiol 1994; 27: 1–9.
Devlin RB, Duncan KE, Jardim M, Schmitt MT, Rappold AG, Diaz-Sanchez D . Controlled exposure of healthy young volunteers to ozone causes cardiovascular effects. Circulation 2012; 126: 104–111.
Weichenthal S, Kulka R, Dubeau A, Martin C, Wang D, Dales R . Traffic-related air pollution and acute changes in heart rate variability and respiratory function in urban cyclists. Environ Health Perspect 2011; 119: 1373–1378.
Wu S, Deng F, Niu J, Huang Q, Liu Y, Guo X . The relationship between traffic-related air pollutants and cardiac autonomic function in a panel of healthy adults: a further analysis with existing data. Inhal Toxicol 2011; 23: 289–303.
Wu CF, Kuo IC, Su TC, Li YR, Lin LY, Chan CC et al. Effects of personal exposure to particulate matter and ozone on arterial stiffness and heart rate variability in healthy adults. Am J Epidemiol 2010; 171: 1299–1309.
Graff DW, Cascio WE, Rappold A, Zhou HB, Huang YCT, Devlin RB . Exposure to concentrated coarse air pollution particles causes mild cardiopulmonary effects in healthy young adults. Environ Health Perspect 2009; 117: 1089–1094.
Vallejo M, Ruiz S, Hermosillo AG, Borja-Aburto VH, Cárdenas M . Ambient fine particles modify heart rate variability in young healthy adults. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol 2006; 16: 125–130.
Magari SR, Hauser R, Schwartz J, Williams PL, Smith TJ, Christiani DC . Association of heart rate variability with occupational and environmental exposure to particulate air pollution. Circulation 2001; 104: 986–991.
Weichenthal S, Kulka R, Bélisle P, Joseph L, Dubeau A, Martin C et al. Personal exposure to specific volatile organic compounds and acute changes in lung function and heart rate variability among urban cyclists. Environ Res 2012; 118: 118–123.
Mizukoshi A, Kumagai K, Yamamoto N, Noguchi M, Yoshiuchi K, Kumano H et al. A novel methodology to evaluate health impacts caused by VOC exposures using real-time VOC and Holter monitors. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2010; 7: 4127–4138.
Davoodi G, Sharif AY, Kazemisaeid A, Sadeghian S, Farahani AV, Sheikhvatan M et al. Comparison of heart rate variability and cardiac arrhythmias in polluted and clean air episodes in healthy individuals. Environ Health Prev Med 2010; 15: 217–221.
Chow DC, Grandinetti A, Fernandez E, Sutton AJ, Elias T, Brooks B et al. Is volcanic air pollution associated with decreased heart-rate variability? Heart Asia 2010; 2: 36–41.
Brook R, Urch B, Dvonch J, Bard R, Speck M, Keeler G et al. Insights into the mechanisms and mediators of the effects of air pollution exposure on blood pressure and vascular function in healthy humans. Hypertension 2009; 54: 659–667.
Zareba W, Couderc J, Oberdorster G, Chalupa D, Cox C, Huang L et al. ECG parameters and exposure to carbon ultrafine particles in young healthy subjects. Inhal Toxicol 2009; 21: 223–233.
Mills NL, Finlayson AE, Gonzalez MC, Törnqvist H, Barath S, Vink E et al. Diesel exhaust inhalation does not affect heart rhythm or heart rate variability. Heart 2011; 97: 544–550.
Wu S, Deng F, Niu J, Huang Q, Liu Y, Guo X . Exposures to PM2.5 components and heart rate variability in taxi drivers around the Beijing 2008 Olympic Games. Sci Total Environ 2011; 409: 2478–2485.
Chuang KJ, Chan CC, Su TC, Lee CT, Tang CS . The effect of urban air pollution on inflammation, oxidative stress, coagulation, and autonomic dysfunction in young adults. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2007; 176: 370–376.
Tong H, Rappold AG, Diaz-Sanchez D, Steck SE, Berntsen J, Cascio WE et al. Omega-3 fatty acid supplementation appears to attenuate particulate air pollution-induced cardiac effects and lipid changes in healthy middle-aged adults. Environ Health Perspect 2012; 120: 952–957.
Schneider A, Hampel R, Ibald-Mulli A, Zareba W, Schmidt G, Schneider R et al. Changes in deceleration capacity of heart rate and heart rate variability induced by ambient air pollution in individuals with coronary artery disease. Part Fibre Toxicol 2010; 7: 29.
Zanobetti A, Gold DR, Stone PH, Suh HH, Schwartz J, Coull BA et al. Reduction in heart rate variability with traffic and air pollution in patients with coronary artery disease. Environ Health Perspect 2010; 118: 324–330.
HolguÃn F, Téllez-Rojo MM, Hernández M, Cortez M, Chow JC, Watson JG et al. Air pollution and heart rate variability among the elderly in Mexico City. Epidemiology 2003; 14: 521–527.
de Hartog JJ, Lanki T, Timonen KL, Hoek G, Janssen NA, Ibald-Mulli A et al. Associations between PM2.5 and heart rate variability are modified by particle composition and beta-blocker use in patients with coronary heart disease. Environ Health Perspect 2009; 117: 105–111.
Lipsett MJ, Tsai FC, Roger L, Woo M, Ostro BD . Coarse particles and heart rate variability among older adults with coronary artery disease in the Coachella Valley, California. Environ Health Perspect 2006; 114: 1215–1220.
McBride SJ, Norris GA, Williams RW, Neas LM . Bayesian hierarchical modeling of cardiac response to particulate matter exposure. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol 2011; 21: 74–91.
Langrish JP, Li X, Wang S, Lee MM, Barnes GD, Miller MR et al. Reducing personal exposure to particulate air pollution improves cardiovascular health in patients with coronary heart disease. Environ Health Perspect 2012; 120: 367–372.
Folino AF, Scapellato ML, Canova C, Maestrelli P, Bertorelli G, Simonato L et al. Individual exposure to particulate matter and the short-term arrhythmic and autonomic profiles in patients with myocardial infarction. Eur Heart J 2009; 30: 1614–1620.
Chuang KJ, Chan CC, Chen NT, Su TC, Lin LY . Effects of particle size fractions on reducing heart rate variability in cardiac and hypertensive patients. Environ Health Perspect 2005; 113: 1693–1697.
Chan CC, Chuang KJ, Shiao GM, Lin LY . Personal exposure to submicrometer particles and heart rate variability in human subjects. Environ Health Perspect 2004; 112: 1063–1067.
Scaife A, Barclay J, Hillis GS, Srinivasan J, Macdonald DW, Ross JA et al. Lack of effect of nitrogen dioxide exposure on heart rate variability in patients with stable coronary heart disease and impaired left ventricular systolic function. Occup Environ Med 2012; 69: 587–591.
Sullivan JH, Schreuder AB, Trenga CA, Liu SL, Larson TV, Koenig JQ et al. Association between short term exposure to fine particulate matter and heart rate variability in older subjects with and without heart disease. Thorax 2005; 60: 462–466.
Barclay JL, Miller BG, Dick S, Dennekamp M, Ford I, Hillis GS et al. A panel study of air pollution in subjects with heart failure: negative results in treated patients. Occup Environ Med 2009; 66: 325–334.
Tarkiainen TH, Timonen KL, Vanninen EJ, Alm S, Hartikainen JE, Pekkanen J . Effect of acute carbon monoxide exposure on heart rate variability in patients with coronary artery disease. Clin Physiol Funct Imaging 2003; 23: 98–102.
Timonen KL, Vanninen E, de Hartog J, Ibald-Mulli A, Brunekreef B, Gold DR et al. Effects of ultrafine and fine particulate and gaseous air pollution on cardiac autonomic control in subjects with coronary artery disease: the ULTRA study. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol 2006; 16: 332–341.
Chang LT, Tang CS, Pan YZ, Chan CC . Association of heart rate variability of the elderly with personal exposure to PM1, PM1-2.5, and PM2.5-10. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 2007; 79: 552–556.
Luttmann-Gibson H, Suh HH, Coull BA, Dockery DW, Sarnat SE, Schwartz J et al. Short-term effects of air pollution on heart rate variability in senior adults in Steubenville, Ohio. J Occup Environ Med 2006; 48: 780–788.
Pope CA, Hansen ML, Long RW, Nielsen KR, Eatough NL, Wilson WE et al. Ambient particulate air pollution, heart rate variability, and blood markers of inflammation in a panel of elderly subjects. Environ Health Perspect 2004; 112: 339–345.
Gold DR, Litonjua A, Schwartz J, Lovett E, Larson A, Nearing B et al. Ambient pollution and heart rate variability. Circulation 2000; 101: 1267–1273.
Devlin RB, Ghio AJ, Kehrl H, Sanders G, Cascio W . Elderly humans exposed to concentrated air pollution particles have decreased heart rate variability. Eur Respir J Suppl 2003; 40: 76s–80s.
Schwartz J, Litonjua A, Suh H, Verrier M, Zanobetti A, Syring M et al. Traffic related pollution and heart rate variability in a panel of elderly subjects. Thorax 2005; 60: 455–461.
Jia X, Song X, Shima M, Tamura K, Deng F, Guo X . Effects of fine particulate on heart rate variability in Beijing: a panel study of healthy elderly subjects. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 2012; 85: 97–107.
Luttmann-Gibson H, Suh HH, Coull BA, Dockery DW, Sarnat SE, Schwartz J et al. Systemic inflammation, heart rate variability and air pollution in a cohort of senior adults. Occup Environ Med 2010; 67: 625–630.
Gong H, Linn WS, Terrell SL, Anderson KR, Clark KW, Sioutas C et al. Exposures of elderly volunteers with and without chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) to concentrated ambient fine particulate pollution. Inhal Toxicol 2004; 16: 731–744.
Gong H, Linn WS, Terrell SL, Clark KW, Geller MD, Anderson KR et al. Altered heart-rate variability in asthmatic and healthy volunteers exposed to concentrated ambient coarse particles. Inhal Toxicol 2004; 16: 335–343.
Tunnicliffe WS, Hilton MF, Harrison RM, Ayres JG . The effect of sulphur dioxide exposure on indices of heart rate variability in normal and asthmatic adults. Eur Respir J 2001; 17: 604–608.
Peretz A, Kaufman JD, Trenga CA, Allen J, Carlsten C, Aulet MR et al. Effects of diesel exhaust inhalation on heart rate variability in human volunteers. Environ Res 2008; 107: 178–184.
Chen JC, Cavallari JM, Stone PH, Christiani DC . Obesity is a modifier of autonomic cardiac responses to fine metal particulates. Environ Health Perspect 2007; 115: 1002–1006.
Hampel R, Breitner S, Schneider A, Zareba W, Kraus U, Cyrys J et al. Acute air pollution effects on heart rate variability are modified by SNPs involved in cardiac rhythm in individuals with diabetes or impaired glucose tolerance. Environ Res 2012; 112: 177–185.
Routledge HC, Manney S, Harrison RM, Ayres JG, Townend JN . Effect of inhaled sulphur dioxide and carbon particles on heart rate variability and markers of inflammation and coagulation in human subjects. Heart 2006; 92: 220–227.
Sivagangabalan G, Spears D, Masse S, Urch B, Brook RD, Silverman F et al. The effect of air pollution on spatial dispersion of myocardial repolarization in healthy human volunteers. J Am Coll Cardiol 2011; 57: 198–206.
Ren C, O'Neill MS, Park SK, Sparrow D, Vokonas P, Schwartz J . Ambient temperature, air pollution, and heart rate variability in an aging population. Am J Epidemiol 2011; 173: 1013–1021.
Yamamoto S, Iwamoto M, Inoue M, Harada N . Evaluation of the effect of heat exposure on the autonomic nervous system by heart rate variability and urinary catecholamines. J Occup Health 2007; 49: 199–204.
Bruce-Low SS, Cotterrell D, Jones GE . Heart rate variability during high ambient heat exposure. Aviat Space Environ M 2006; 77: 915–920.
Antelmi I, de Paula RS, Shinzato AR, Peres CA, Mansur AJ, Grupi CJ . Influence of age, gender, body mass index, and functional capacity on heart rate variability in a cohort of subjects without heart disease. Am J Cardiol 2004; 93: 381–385.
Umetani K, Singer DH, McCraty R, Atkinson M . Twenty-four hour time domain heart rate variability and heart rate: relations to age and gender over nine decades. J Am Coll Cardiol 1998; 31: 593–601.
Schmid K, Schönlebe J, Drexler H, Mueck-Weymann M . Associations between being overweight, variability in heart rate, and well-being in the young men. Cardiol Young 2010; 20: 54–59.
Hu K, Ivanov PCh, Hilton MF, Chen Z, Ayers RT, Stanley HE et al. Endogenous circadian rhythm in an index of cardiac vulnerability independent of changes in behavior. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2004; 101: 18223–18227.
Pichon AP, de Bisschop C, Roulaud M, Denjean A, Papelier Y . Spectral analysis of heart rate variability during exercise in trained subjects. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2004; 36: 1702–1708.
Grant CC, Viljoen M, van Rensburg DC, Wood PS . Heart rate variability assessment of the effect of physical training on autonomic cardiac control. Ann Noninvasive Electrocardiol 2012; 17: 219–229.
Young FL, Leicht AS . Short-term stability of resting heart rate variability: influence of position and gender. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 2011; 36: 210–218.
Binkley PF, Haas GJ, Starling RC, Nunziata E, Hatton PA, Leier CV et al. Sustained augmentation of parasympathetic tone with angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition in patients with congestive heart failure. J Am Coll Cardiol 1993; 21: 655–661.
Yeragani VK, Pohl R, Balon R, Ramesh C, Glitz D, Weinberg et al. Effect of imipramine treatment on heart rate variability measures. Neuropsychobiology 1992; 26: 27–32.
Kraus U, Schneider A, Breitner S, Hampel R, Ruckerl R, Pitz M et al. Individual daytime noise exposure during routine activities and heart rate variability in adults: a repeated measures study. Environ Health Perspect 2013; 121: 607–612.
Huang J, Deng F, Wu S, Lu H, Hao Y, Guo X . The impacts of short-term exposure to noise and traffic-related air pollution on heart rate variability in young healthy adults. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol 2013; 23: 559–564.
Tomiyama H, Yamashina A . Non-invasive vascular function tests: their pathophysiological background and clinical application. Circ J 2010; 74: 24–33.
Poredos P, Jezovnik MK . Testing endothelial function and its clinical relevance. J Atheroscler Thromb 2012; 20: 1–8.
Akamatsu D, Sato A, Goto H, Watanabe T, Hashimoto M, Shimizu T et al. Nitroglycerin-mediated vasodilatation of the brachial artery may predict long-term cardiovascular events irrespective of the presence of atherosclerotic disease. J Atheroscler Thromb 2010; 17: 1266–1274.
Lee CR, Bass A, Ellis K, Tran B, Steele S, Caughey M et al. Relation between digital peripheral arterial tonometry and brachial artery ultrasound measures of vascular function in patients with coronary artery disease and in healthy volunteers. Am J Cardiol 2012; 109: 651–657.
Patvardhan EA, Heffernan KS, Ruan JM, Soffler MI, Karas RH, Kuvin JT . Assessment of vascular endothelial function with peripheral arterial tonometry: information at your fingertips? Cardiol Rev 2010; 18: 20–28.
Erdogmus B, Yazici B, Annakkaya AN, Bilgin C, Safak AA, Arbak et al. Intima-media thickness of the common carotid artery in highway toll collectors. J Clin Ultrasound 2006; 34: 430–433.
Simon A, Gariepy J, Chironi G, Megnien JL, Levenson J . Intima-media thickness: a new tool for diagnosis and treatment of cardiovascular risk. J Hypertens 2002; 20: 159–169.
Stein JH, Korcarz CE, Hurst RT, Lonn E, Kendall CB, Mohler ER et al. Use of carotid ultrasound to identify subclinical vascular disease and evaluate cardiovascular disease risk: a consensus statement from the American Society of Echocardiography Carotid Intima-Media Thickness Task Force. Endorsed by the Society for Vascular Medicine. J Am Soc Echocardiogr 2008; 21: 93–111 quiz 89-90.
Thijssen DH, Black MA, Pyke KE, Padilla J, Atkinson G, Harris RA et al. Assessment of flow-mediated dilation in humans: a methodological and physiological guideline. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2011; 300: H2–12.
Touboul PJ, Hennerici MG, Meairs S, Adams H, Amarenco P, Bornstein N et al. Mannheim carotid intima-media thickness consensus (2004-2006). An update on behalf of the Advisory Board of the 3rd and 4th Watching the Risk Symposium, 13th and 15th European Stroke Conferences, Mannheim, Germany, 2004, and Brussels, Belgium, 2006. Cerebrovasc Dis 2007; 23: 75–80.
Ciccone MM, Bilianou E, Balbarini A, Gesualdo M, Ghiadoni L, Metra M et al. Task force on: 'Early markers of atherosclerosis: influence of age and sex'. J Cardiovasc Med (Hagerstown) 2013; 14: 757–766.
Kanters SD, Algra A, van Leeuwen MS, Banga JD . Reproducibility of in vivo carotid intima-media thickness measurements: a review. Stroke 1997; 28: 665–671.
Corretti MC, Anderson TJ, Benjamin EJ, Celermajer D, Charbonneau F, Creager MA et al. Guidelines for the ultrasound assessment of endothelial-dependent flow-mediated vasodilation of the brachial artery: a report of the International Brachial Artery Reactivity Task Force. J Am Coll Cardiol 2002; 39: 257–265.
Magda SL, Ciobanu AO, Florescu M, Vinereanu D . Comparative reproducibility of the noninvasive ultrasound methods for the assessment of vascular function. Heart Vessels 2012; 28: 143–150.
Berry KL, Skyrme-Jones RA, Meredith IT . Occlusion cuff position is an important determinant of the time course and magnitude of human brachial artery flow-mediated dilation. Clin Sci (Lond) 2000; 99: 261–267.
Betik AC, Luckham VB, Hughson RL . Flow-mediated dilation in human brachial artery after different circulatory occlusion conditions. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2004; 286: H442–H448.
Mannion TC, Vita JA, Keaney JF, Benjamin EJ, Hunter L, Polak JF . Non-invasive assessment of brachial artery endothelial vasomotor function: the effect of cuff position on level of discomfort and vasomotor responses. Vasc Med 1998; 3: 263–267.
Vogel RA, Corretti MC, Plotnick GD . A comparison of brachial artery flow-mediated vasodilation using upper and lower arm arterial occlusion in subjects with and without coronary risk factors. Clin Cardiol 2000; 23: 571–575.
Harris RA, Nishiyama SK, Wray DW, Tedjasaputra V, Bailey DM, Richardson RS . The effect of oral antioxidants on brachial artery flow-mediated dilation following 5 and 10 min of ischemia. Eur J Appl Physiol 2009; 107: 445–453.
Leeson P, Thorne S, Donald A, Mullen M, Clarkson P, Deanfield J . Non-invasive measurement of endothelial function: effect on brachial artery dilatation of graded endothelial dependent and independent stimuli. Heart 1997; 78: 22–27.
Peters SA, Bots ML . Carotid intima-media thickness studies: study design and data analysis. J Stroke 2013; 15: 38–48.
Ras RT, Streppel MT, Draijer R, Zock PL . Flow-mediated dilation and cardiovascular risk prediction: a systematic review with meta-analysis. Int J Cardiol 2012; 168: 344–351.
Kuvin JT, Patel AR, Sliney KA, Pandian NG, Sheffy J, Schnall RP et al. Assessment of peripheral vascular endothelial function with finger arterial pulse wave amplitude. Am Heart J 2003; 146: 168–174.
Rubinshtein R, Kuvin JT, Soffler M, Lennon RJ, Lavi S, Nelson RE et al. Assessment of endothelial function by non-invasive peripheral arterial tonometry predicts late cardiovascular adverse events. Eur Heart J 2010; 31: 1142–1148.
Hamburg NM, Keyes MJ, Larson MG, Vasan RS, Schnabel R, Pryde MM et al. Cross-sectional relations of digital vascular function to cardiovascular risk factors in the Framingham Heart Study. Circulation 2008; 117: 2467–2474.
Hamburg NM, Palmisano J, Larson MG, Sullivan LM, Lehman BT, Vasan RS et al. Relation of brachial and digital measures of vascular function in the community: the Framingham heart study. Hypertension 2011; 57: 390–396.
Schnabel RB, Schulz A, Wild PS, Sinning CR, Wilde S, Eleftheriadis M et al. Noninvasive vascular function measurement in the community: cross-sectional relations and comparison of methods. Circ Cardiovasc Imaging 2011; 4: 371–380.
Iwakiri T, Yano Y, Sato Y, Hatakeyama K, Marutsuka K, Fujimoto S et al. Usefulness of carotid intima-media thickness measurement as an indicator of generalized atherosclerosis: findings from autopsy analysis. Atherosclerosis 2012; 225: 359–362.
Baldassarre D, Hamsten A, Veglia F, de Faire U, Humphries SE, Smit AJ et al. Measurements of carotid intima-media thickness and of interadventitia common carotid diameter improve prediction of cardiovascular events: results of the IMPROVE (Carotid Intima Media Thickness [IMT] and IMT-Progression as Predictors of Vascular Events in a High Risk European Population) Study. J Am Coll Cardiol 2012; 60: 1489–1499.
Touboul PJ, Vicaut E, Labreuche J, Belliard JP, Cohen S, Kownator S et al. Correlation between the Framingham risk score and intima media thickness: the Paroi Artérielle et Risque Cardio-vasculaire (PARC) study. Atherosclerosis 2007; 192: 363–369.
Lorenz MW, Markus HS, Bots ML, Rosvall M, Sitzer M . Prediction of clinical cardiovascular events with carotid intima-media thickness: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Circulation 2007; 115: 459–467.
Rundell KW, Steigerwald MD, Fisk MZ . Montelukast prevents vascular endothelial dysfunction from internal combustion exhaust inhalation during exercise. Inhal Toxicol 2010; 22: 754–759.
Urch B, Brook JR, Wasserstein D, Brook RD, Rajagopalan S, Corey et al. Relative contributions of PM2.5 chemical constituents to acute arterial vasoconstriction in humans. Inhal Toxicol 2004; 16: 345–352.
Brook RD, Brook JR, Urch B, Vincent R, Rajagopalan S, Silverman F . Inhalation of fine particulate air pollution and ozone causes acute arterial vasoconstriction in healthy adults. Circulation 2002; 105: 1534–1536.
Peretz A, Sullivan JH, Leotta DF, Trenga CA, Sands FN, Allen J et al. Diesel exhaust inhalation elicits acute vasoconstriction in vivo. Environ Health Perspect 2008; 116: 937–942.
Williams R, Brook R, Bard R, Conner T, Shin H, Burnett R . Impact of personal and ambient-level exposures to nitrogen dioxide and particulate matter on cardiovascular function. Int J Environ Health Res 2012; 22: 71–91.
Brook RD, Shin HH, Bard RL, Burnett RT, Vette A, Croghan C et al. Exploration of the rapid effects of personal fine particulate matter exposure on arterial hemodynamics and vascular function during the same day. Environ Health Perspect 2011; 119: 688–694.
Cutrufello PT, Rundell KW, Smoliga JM, Stylianides GA . Inhaled whole exhaust and its effect on exercise performance and vascular function. Inhal Toxicol 2011; 23: 658–667.
Brook RD, Bard RL, Burnett RT, Shin HH, Vette A, Croghan C et al. Differences in blood pressure and vascular responses associated with ambient fine particulate matter exposures measured at the personal versus community level. Occup Environ Med 2011; 68: 224–230.
Briet M, Collin C, Laurent S, Tan A, Azizi M, Agharazii M et al. Endothelial function and chronic exposure to air pollution in normal male subjects. Hypertension 2007; 50: 970–976.
Dales R, Liu L, Szyszkowicz M, Dalipaj M, Willey J, Kulka R et al. Particulate air pollution and vascular reactivity: the bus stop study. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 2007; 81: 159–164.
Rundell KW, Hoffman JR, Caviston R, Bulbulian R, Hollenbach AM . Inhalation of ultrafine and fine particulate matter disrupts systemic vascular function. Inhal Toxicol 2007; 19: 133–140.
O'Neill MS, Veves A, Zanobetti A, Sarnat JA, Gold DR, Economides PA et al. Diabetes enhances vulnerability to particulate air pollution-associated impairment in vascular reactivity and endothelial function. Circulation 2005; 111: 2913–2920.
Schneider A, Neas L, Herbst MC, Case M, Williams RW, Cascio W et al. Endothelial dysfunction: associations with exposure to ambient fine particles in diabetic individuals. Environ Health Perspect 2008; 116: 1666–1674.
Hashemi M, Afshani MR, Mansourian M, Poursafa P, Kelishadi R . Association of particulate air pollution and secondhand smoke on endothelium-dependent brachial artery dilation in healthy children. J Res Med Sci 2012; 17: 317–321.
Pope CA, Hansen JC, Kuprov R, Sanders MD, Anderson MN, Eatough DJ . Vascular function and short-term exposure to fine particulate air pollution. J Air Waste Manag Assoc 2011; 61: 858–863.
Brauner EV, Moller P, Barregard L, Dragsted LO, Glasius M, Wahlin et al. Exposure to ambient concentrations of particulate air pollution does not influence vascular function or inflammatory pathways in young healthy individuals. Part Fibre Toxicol 2008; 5: 9.
Iannuzzi A, Verga MC, Renis M, Schiavo A, Salvatore V, Santoriello C et al. Air pollution and carotid arterial stiffness in children. Cardiol Young 2010; 20: 186–190.
Lanzinger S, Breitner S, Neas L, Cascio W, Diaz-Sanchez D, Hinderliter A et al. The impact of decreases in air temperature and increases in ozone on markers of endothelial function in individuals having type-2 diabetes. Environ Res 2014; 134c: 331–338.
Zanobetti A, Luttmann-Gibson H, Horton ES, Cohen A, Coull BA, Hoffmann B et al. Brachial artery responses to ambient pollution, temperature, and humidity in people with type 2 diabetes: a repeated-measures study. Environ Health Perspect 2014; 122: 242–248.
Widlansky ME, Vita JA, Keyes MJ, Larson MG, Hamburg NM, Levy D et al. Relation of season and temperature to endothelium-dependent flow-mediated vasodilation in subjects without clinical evidence of cardiovascular disease (from the Framingham Heart Study). Am J Cardiol 2007; 100: 518–523.
Celermajer DS, Sorensen KE, Spiegelhalter DJ, Georgakopoulos D, Robinson J, Deanfield JE . Aging is associated with endothelial dysfunction in healthy men years before the age-related decline in women. J Am Coll Cardiol 1994; 24: 471–476.
Ciccone MM, Balbarini A, Teresa Porcelli M, Santoro D, Cortese F, Scicchitano et al. Carotid artery intima-media thickness: normal and percentile values in the Italian population (camp study). Eur J Cardiovasc Prev Rehabil 2011; 18: 650–655.
Kablak-Ziembicka A, Przewlocki T, Tracz W, Pieniazek P, Musialek P, Sokolowski A . Gender differences in carotid intima-media thickness in patients with suspected coronary artery disease. Am J Cardiol 2005; 96: 1217–1222.
Llewellyn TL, Chaffin ME, Berg KE, Meendering JR . The relationship between shear rate and flow-mediated dilation is altered by acute exercise. Acta Physiol (Oxf) 2012; 205: 394–402.
Harris RA, Padilla J, Hanlon KP, Rink LD, Wallace JP . The flow-mediated dilation response to acute exercise in overweight active and inactive men. Obesity (Silver Spring) 2008; 16: 578–584.
McGowan CL, Levy AS, Millar PJ, Guzman JC, Morillo CA, McCartney N et al. Acute vascular responses to isometric handgrip exercise and effects of training in persons medicated for hypertension. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2006; 291: H1797–H1802.
Birk GK, Dawson EA, Batterham AM, Atkinson G, Cable T, Thijssen DH et al. Effects of exercise intensity on flow mediated dilation in healthy humans. Int J Sports Med 2012; 34: 409–414.
Hijmering ML, de Lange DW, Lorsheyd A, Kraaijenhagen RJ, van de Wiel A . Binge drinking causes endothelial dysfunction, which is not prevented by wine polyphenols: a small trial in healthy volunteers. Neth J Med 2007; 65: 29–35.
Shechter M, Shalmon G, Scheinowitz M, Koren-Morag N, Feinberg MS, Harats D et al. Impact of acute caffeine ingestion on endothelial function in subjects with and without coronary artery disease. Am J Cardiol 2011; 107: 1255–1261.
Papamichael CM, Aznaouridis KA, Karatzis EN, Karatzi KN, Stamatelopoulos KS, Vamvakou G et al. Effect of coffee on endothelial function in healthy subjects: the role of caffeine. Clin Sci (Lond) 2005; 109: 55–60.
Suzuki K, Elkind MS, Boden-Albala B, Jin Z, Berry G, Di Tullio MR et al. Moderate alcohol consumption is associated with better endothelial function: a cross sectional study. BMC Cardiovasc Disord 2009; 9: 8.
Bau PF, Bau CH, Naujorks AA, Rosito GA, Fuchs FD . Diurnal variation of vascular diameter and reactivity in healthy young men. Braz J Med Biol Res 2008; 41: 500–503.
Etsuda H, Takase B, Uehata A, Kusano H, Hamabe A, Kuhara R et al. Morning attenuation of endothelium-dependent, flow-mediated dilation in healthy young men: possible connection to morning peak of cardiac events? Clin Cardiol 1999; 22: 417–421.
Schmidt F, Kolle K, Kreuder K, Schnorbus B, Wild P, Hechtner M et al. Nighttime aircraft noise impairs endothelial function and increases blood pressure in patients with or at high risk for coronary artery disease. Clin Res Cardiol 2014.
Salvi S . Health effects of ambient air pollution in children. Paediatr Respir Rev 2007; 8: 275–280.
Miller MR, Hankinson J, Brusasco V, Burgos F, Casaburi R, Coates A et al. Standardisation of spirometry. Eur Respir J 2005; 26: 319–338.
Lippmann M, Spektor DM . Peak flow rate changes in O3 exposed children: spirometry vs miniWright flow meters. J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol 1998; 8: 101–107.
Stoller JK, Basheda S, Laskowski D, Goormastic M, McCarthy K . Trial of standard versus modified expiration to achieve end-of-test spirometry criteria. Am Rev Respir Dis 1993; 148: 275–280.
Ruppel GL, Enright PL . Pulmonary function testing. Respir Care 2012; 57: 165–175.
Crapo RO, Jensen RL . Standards and interpretive issues in lung function testing. Respir Care 2003; 48: 764–772.
Hankinson JL, Odencrantz JR, Fedan KB . Spirometric reference values from a sample of the general U.S. population. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1999; 159: 179–187.
D'Angelo E, Prandi E, Milic-Emili J . Dependence of maximal flow-volume curves on time course of preceding inspiration. J Appl Physiol 1993; 75: 1155–1159.
Becklake MR . Concepts of normality applied to the measurement of lung function. Am J Med 1986; 80: 1158–1164.
Klaassen C, Watkins JB., III . Casarett and Doull's Essentials of Toxicology. McGraw-Hill: New York. 2003.
Al-Ashkar F, Mehra R, Mazzone PJ . Interpreting pulmonary function tests: recognize the pattern, and the diagnosis will follow. Cleve Clin J Med. 2003; 70: 866 8, 71-3, passim.
Li S, Williams G, Jalaludin B, Baker P . Panel studies of air pollution on children's lung function and respiratory symptoms: a literature review. J Asthma 2012; 49: 895–910.
Cole-Hunter T, Morawska L, Stewart I, Hadaway M, Jayaratne R, Solomon C . Utility of an alternative bicycle commute route of lower proximity to motorised traffic in decreasing exposure to ultra-fine particles, respiratory symptoms and airway inflammation — a structured exposure experiment. Environ Health 2013; 12: 29.
Jarjour S, Jerrett M, Westerdahl D, de Nazelle A, Hanning C, Daly L et al. Cyclist route choice, traffic-related air pollution, and lung function: a scripted exposure study. Environ Health 2013; 12: 14.
Fan ZH, Meng QY, Weisel C, Laumbach R, Ohman-Strickland P, Shalat S et al. Acute exposure to elevated PM2.5 generated by traffic and cardiopulmonary health effects in healthy older adults. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol 2009; 19: 525–533.
Lagorio S, Forastiere F, Pistelli R, Iavarone I, Michelozzi P, Fano V et al. Air pollution and lung function among susceptible adult subjects: a panel study. Environ Health 2006; 5: 11.
Langrish JP, Lundbäck M, Barath S, Söderberg S, Mills NL, Newby DE et al. Exposure to nitrogen dioxide is not associated with vascular dysfunction in man. Inhal Toxicol 2010; 22: 192–198.
Barck C, Sandstrom T, Lundahl J, Hallden G, Svartengren M, Strand V et al. Ambient level of NO2 augments the inflammatory response to inhaled allergen in asthmatics. Respir Med 2002; 96: 907–917.
Gong H, Linn WS, Clark KW, Anderson KR, Geller MD, Sioutas C . Respiratory responses to exposures with fine particulates and nitrogen dioxide in the elderly with and without COPD. Inhal Toxicol 2005; 17: 123–132.
Cowie CT, Ezz W, Xuan W, Lilley W, Rose N, Rae M et al. A randomised cross-over cohort study of exposure to emissions from a road tunnel ventilation stack. BMJ Open 2012; 2.
Hsu SO, Ito K, Lippmann M . Effects of thoracic and fine PM and their components on heart rate and pulmonary function in COPD patients. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol 2011; 21: 464–472.
Foster WM, Brown RH, Macri K, Mitchell CS . Bronchial reactivity of healthy subjects: 18-20 h postexposure to ozone. J Appl Physiol 2000; 89: 1804–1810.
Meo SA, Al-Drees AM, Rasheed S, Meo IM, Khan MM, Al-Saadi MM et al. Effect of duration of exposure to polluted air environment on lung function in subjects exposed to crude oil spill into sea water. Int J Occup Med Environ Health 2009; 22: 35–41.
Uzma N, Salar BM, Kumar BS, Aziz N, David MA, Reddy VD . Impact of organic solvents and environmental pollutants on the physiological function in petrol filling workers. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2008; 5: 139–146.
Jones AY, Lam PK, Gohel MD . Respiratory health of road-side vendors in a large industrialized city. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int 2008; 15: 150–154.
Hong YC, Leem JH, Lee KH, Park DH, Jang JY, Kim ST et al. Exposure to air pollution and pulmonary function in university students. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 2005; 78: 132–138.
Wu S, Deng F, Hao Y, Shima M, Wang X, Zheng C et al. Chemical constituents of fine particulate air pollution and pulmonary function in healthy adults: The Healthy Volunteer Natural Relocation study. J Hazard Mater 2013; 260C: 183–191.
Karita K, Yano E, Jinsart W, Boudoung D, Tamura K . Respiratory symptoms and pulmonary function among traffic police in Bangkok, Thailand. Arch Environ Health 2001; 56: 467–470.
Larsson BM, Grunewald J, Sköld CM, Lundin A, Sandström T, Eklund A et al. Limited airway effects in mild asthmatics after exposure to air pollution in a road tunnel. Respir Med 2010; 104: 1912–1918.
Gong H, Linn WS, Clark KW, Anderson KR, Sioutas C, Alexis NE et al. Exposures of healthy and asthmatic volunteers to concentrated ambient ultrafine particles in los angeles. Inhal Toxicol 2008; 20: 533–545.
Penttinen P, Timonen KL, Tiittanen P, Mirme A, Ruuskanen J, Pekkanen J . Number concentration and size of particles in urban air: effects on spirometric lung function in adult asthmatic subjects. Environ Health Perspect 2001; 109: 319–323.
Hussain S, Laumbach R, Coleman J, Youssef H, Kelly-McNeil K, Ohman-Strickland et al. Controlled exposure to diesel exhaust causes increased nitrite in exhaled breath condensate among subjects with asthma. J Occup Environ Med 2012; 54: 1186–1191.
Beckett WS, Russi MB, Haber AD, Rivkin RM, Sullivan JR, Tameroglu Z et al. Effect of nitrous acid on lung function in asthmatics: a chamber study. Environ Health Perspect 1995; 103: 372–375.
Korrick SA, Neas LM, Dockery DW, Gold DR, Allen GA, Hill LB et al. Effects of ozone and other pollutants on the pulmonary function of adult hikers. Environ Health Perspect 1998; 106: 93–99.
Gilliland FD, Linn W, Rappaport E, Avol E, Gong H, Peters J . Effect of spirometer temperature on FEV1 in a longitudinal epidemiological study. Occup Environ Med 1999; 56: 718–720.
Willemse BW, Postma DS, Timens W, ten Hacken NH . The impact of smoking cessation on respiratory symptoms, lung function, airway hyperresponsiveness and inflammation. Eur Respir J 2004; 23: 464–476.
Gabbay E, Fisher A, Small T, Leonard A, Corris P . Exhaled single-breath nitric oxide measurements are reproducible, repeatable and reflect levels of nitric oxide found in the lower airways. Eur Respir J 1998; 11: 467–472.
Gustafsson LE, Leone AM, Persson MG, Wiklund NP, Moncada S . Endogenous nitric oxide is present in the exhaled air of rabbits, guinea pigs and humans. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1991; 181: 852–857.
Van Amsterdam J, Nierkens S, Vos S, Opperhuizen A, Van Loveren H, Steerenberg P . Exhaled nitric oxide: A novel biomarker of adverse respiratory health effects in epidemiological studies. Arch Environ Health 2000; 55: 418–423.
Alderton WK, Cooper CE, Knowles RG . Nitric oxide synthases: structure, function and inhibition. Biochem J 2001; 357: 593–615.
Taylor D, Pijnenburg M, Smith A, De Jongste J . Exhaled nitric oxide measurements: clinical application and interpretation. Thorax 2006; 61: 817–827.
Barnes P, Kharitonov S . Exhaled nitric oxide: a new lung function test. Thorax 1996; 51: 233–237.
Laumbach RJ, Kipen HM . Acute effects of motor vehicle traffic-related air pollution exposures on measures of oxidative stress in human airways. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2010; 1203: 107–112.
La Grutta S, Ferrante G, Malizia V, Cibella F, Viegi G . Environmental effects on fractional exhaled nitric oxide in allergic children. J Allergy (Cairo) 2012; 2012: 916926.
Boot JD, de Ridder L, de Kam ML, Calderon C, Mascelli MA, Diamant Z . Comparison of exhaled nitric oxide measurements between NIOX MINO electrochemical and Ecomedics chemiluminescence analyzer. Respir Med. 2008; 102: 1667–1671.
Bohadana A, Michaely JP, Teculescu D, Wild P . Reproducibility of exhaled nitric oxide in smokers and non-smokers: relevance for longitudinal studies. BMC Pulm Med 2008; 8: 4.
Kharitonov S, Gonio F, Kelly C, Meah S, Barnes P . Reproducibility of exhaled nitric oxide measurements in healthy and asthmatic adults and children. Eur Respir J 2003; 21: 433–438.
American Thoracic Society; European Respiratory Society. ATS/ERS recommendations for standardized procedures for the online and offline measurement of exhaled lower respiratory nitric oxide and nasal nitric oxide, 2005. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2005; 171: 912–930.
Silkoff P, Carlson M, Bourke T, Katial R, Ogren E, Szefler S . The Aerocrine exhaled nitric oxide monitoring system NIOX is cleared by the US Food and Drug Administration for monitoring therapy in asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2004; 114: 1241–1256.
Silkoff PE, Wakita S, Chatkin J, Ansarin K, Gutierrez C, Caramori M et al. Exhaled nitric oxide after beta2-agonist inhalation and spirometry in asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1999; 159: 940–944.
Gabriele C, Pijnenburg MW, Monti F, Hop W, Bakker ME, de Jongste JC . The effect of spirometry and exercise on exhaled nitric oxide in asthmatic children. Pediatr Allergy Immunol 2005; 16: 243–247.
Deykin A, Halpern O, Massaro AF, Drazen JM, Israel E . Expired nitric oxide after bronchoprovocation and repeated spirometry in patients with asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1998; 157: 769–775.
Garriga T, Labrador-Horrillo M, Guillén M, Luengo O, Eseverri JL, Guilarte M et al. Spirometric maneuvers and inhaled salbutamol do not affect exhaled nitric oxide measurements among patients with allergic asthma. Respiration 2012; 83: 239–244.
Korn S, Telke I, Kornmann O, Buhl R . Measurement of exhaled nitric oxide: comparison of different analysers. Respirology 2010; 15: 1203–1208.
Brooks CR, Brogan SB, van Dalen CJ, Lampshire PK, Crane J, Douwes J . Measurement of exhaled nitric oxide in a general population sample: a comparison of the Medisoft HypAir FE(NO) and Aerocrine NIOX analyzers. J Asthma 2011; 48: 324–328.
Schiller B, Hammer J, Barben J, Trachsel D . Comparability of a hand-held nitric oxide analyser with online and offline chemiluminescence-based nitric oxide measurement. Pediatr Allergy Immunol 2009; 20: 679–685.
Borrill Z, Clough D, Truman N, Morris J, Langley S, Singh D . A comparison of exhaled nitric oxide measurements performed using three different analysers. Respir Med 2006; 100: 1392–1396.
Flamant-Hulin M, Caillaud D, Sacco P, Penard-Morand C, Annesi-Maesano I . Air pollution and increased levels of fractional exhaled nitric oxide in children with no history of airway damage. J Toxicol Environ Health A 2010; 73: 272–283.
Barraza-Villarreal A, Sunyer J, Hernandez-Cadena L, Escamilla-Nunez M, Sienra-Monge J, Ramirez-Aguilar M et al. Air pollution, airway inflammation, and lung function in a cohort study of Mexico City schoolchildren. Environ Health Perspect 2008; 116: 832–838.
Berhane K, Zhang Y, Linn W, Rappaport E, Bastain T, Salam M et al. The effect of ambient air pollution on exhaled nitric oxide in the Children's Health Study. Eur Respir J 2011; 37: 1029–1036.
Travers J, Marsh S, Aldington S, Williams M, Shirtcliffe P, Pritchard A et al. Reference ranges for exhaled nitric oxide derived from a random community survey of adults. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2007; 176: 238–242.
Kharitonov SA, Yates D, Robbins RA, Logan-Sinclair R, Shinebourne EA, Barnes PJ . Increased nitric oxide in exhaled air of asthmatic patients. Lancet 1994; 343: 133–135.
Scarpa MC, Kulkarni N, Maestrelli P . The role of non-invasive biomarkers in detecting acute respiratory effects of traffic-related air pollution. Clin Exp Allergy 2014; 44: 1100–1118.
Zuurbier M, Hoek G, Oldenwening M, Meliefste K, van den Hazel P, Brunekreef B . Respiratory effects of commuters' exposure to air pollution in traffic. Epidemiology 2011; 22: 219–227.
Strak M, Boogaard H, Meliefste K, Oldenwening M, Zuurbier M, Brunekreef B et al. Respiratory health effects of ultrafine and fine particle exposure in cyclists. Occup Environ Med 2010; 67: 118–124.
Van Amsterdam JG, Verlaan BP, Van Loveren H, Elzakker BG, Vos SG, Opperhuizen A et al. Air pollution is associated with increased level of exhaled nitric oxide in nonsmoking healthy subjects. Arch Environ Health 1999; 54: 331–335.
Barath S, Mills NL, Adelroth E, Olin AC, Blomberg A . Diesel exhaust but not ozone increases fraction of exhaled nitric oxide in a randomized controlled experimental exposure study of healthy human subjects. Environ Health 2013; 12: 36.
Steerenberg P, Snelder J, Fischer P, Vos J, van Loveren H, van Amsterdam J . Increased exhaled nitric oxide on days with high outdoor air pollution is of endogenous origin. Eur Respir J 1999; 13: 334–337.
Bos I, De Boever P, Vanparijs J, Pattyn N, Panis LI, Meeusen R . Subclinical effects of aerobic training in urban environment. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2013; 45: 439–447.
Huang W, Wang G, Lu SE, Kipen H, Wang Y, Hu M et al. Inflammatory and oxidative stress responses of healthy young adults to changes in air quality during the Beijing olympics. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2012; 186: 1150–1159.
Pietropaoli AP, Frampton MW, Hyde RW, Morrow PE, Oberdörster G, Cox C et al. Pulmonary function, diffusing capacity, and inflammation in healthy and asthmatic subjects exposed to ultrafine particles. Inhal Toxicol 2004; 16: 59–72.
Jacobs L, Nawrot T, de Geus B, Meeusen R, Degraeuwe B, Bernard A et al. Subclinical responses in healthy cyclists briefly exposed to traffic-related air pollution: an intervention study. Environ Health 2010; 9: 64.
Olin AC, Stenfors N, Torén K, Blomberg A, Helleday R, Ledin MC et al. Nitric oxide (NO) in exhaled air after experimental ozone exposure in humans. Respir Med 2001; 95: 491–495.
Lin WW, Huang W, Zhu T, Hu M, Brunekreef B, Zhang YH et al. Acute respiratory inflammation in children and black carbon in ambient air before and during the 2008 Beijing olympics. Environ Health Perspect 2011; 119: 1507–1512.
Murata A, Kida K, Hasunuma H, Kanegae H, Ishimaru Y, Motegi T et al. Environmental influence on the measurement of exhaled nitric oxide concentration in school children: special reference to methodology. J Nihon Med Sch 2007; 74: 30–36.
Graveland H, Van Roosbroeck S, Rensen W, Brunekreef B, Gehring U . Air pollution and exhaled nitric oxide in Dutch schoolchildren. Occup Environ Med 2011; 68: 551–556.
Dales R, Wheeler A, Mahmud M, Frescura A, Smith-Doiron M, Nethery E et al. The influence of living near roadways on spirometry and exhaled nitric oxide in elementary schoolchildren. Environ Health Perspect 2008; 116: 1423–1427.
Nickmilder M, de Burbure C, Carbonnelle S, Sylviane C, Dumont X, Xavier D et al. Increase of exhaled nitric oxide in children exposed to low levels of ambient ozone. J Toxicol Environ Health A 2007; 70: 270–274.
Fischer P, Steerenberg P, Snelder J, van Loveren H, van Amsterdam J . Association between exhaled nitric oxide, ambient air pollution and respiratory health in school children. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 2002; 75: 348–353.
Buonanno G, Marks GB, Morawska L . Health effects of daily airborne particle dose in children: direct association between personal dose and respiratory health effects. Environ Pollut 2013; 180C: 246–250.
Maestrelli P, Canova C, Scapellato ML, Visentin A, Tessari R, Bartolucci GB et al. Personal exposure to particulate matter is associated with worse health perception in adult asthma. J Investig Allergol Clin Immunol 2011; 21: 120–128.
Qian Z, Lin HM, Chinchilli VM, Lehman EB, Duan Y, Craig TJ et al. Interaction of ambient air pollution with asthma medication on exhaled nitric oxide among asthmatics. Arch Environ Occup Health 2009; 64: 168–176.
Sarnat SE, Raysoni AU, Li WW, Holguin F, Johnson BA, Flores Luevano S et al. Air pollution and acute respiratory response in a panel of asthmatic children along the U.S.-Mexico border. Environ Health Perspect 2012; 120: 437–444.
Liu L, Poon R, Chen L, Frescura AM, Montuschi P, Ciabattoni G et al. Acute effects of air pollution on pulmonary function, airway inflammation, and oxidative stress in asthmatic children. Environ Health Perspect 2009; 117: 668–674.
Sarnat SE, Raysoni AU, Li WW, Holguin F, Johnson BA, Flores Luevano S et al. Air pollution and acute respiratory response in a panel of asthmatic children along the U.S.-Mexico border. Environ Health Perspect 2012; 120: 437–444.
Liu L, Poon R, Chen L, Frescura AM, Montuschi P, Ciabattoni G et al. Acute effects of air pollution on pulmonary function, airway inflammation, and oxidative stress in asthmatic children. Environ Health Perspect 2009; 117: 668–674.
Koenig JQ, Jansen K, Mar TF, Lumley T, Kaufman J, Trenga CA et al. Measurement of offline exhaled nitric oxide in a study of community exposure to air pollution. Environ Health Perspect 2003; 111: 1625–1629.
Delfino RJ, Staimer N, Gillen D, Tjoa T, Sioutas C, Fung K et al. Personal and ambient air pollution is associated with increased exhaled nitric oxide in children with asthma. Environ Health Perspect 2006; 114: 1736–1743.
Adamkiewicz G, Ebelt S, Syring M, Slater J, Speizer F, Schwartz J et al. Association between air pollution exposure and exhaled nitric oxide in an elderly population. Thorax 2004; 59: 204–209.
Delfino RJ, Staimer N, Tjoa T, Arhami M, Polidori A, Gillen DL et al. Associations of primary and secondary organic aerosols with airway and systemic inflammation in an elderly panel cohort. Epidemiology 2010; 21: 892–902.
Steerenberg PA, Bischoff EW, de Klerk A, Verlaan AP, Jongbloets LM, van Loveren H et al. Acute effect of air pollution on respiratory complaints, exhaled NO and biomarkers in nasal lavages of allergic children during the pollen season. Int Arch Allergy Immunol 2003; 131: 127–137.
Martins PC, Valente J, Papoila AL, Caires I, Araújo-Martins J, Mata et al. Airways changes related to air pollution exposure in wheezing children. Eur Respir J 2012; 39: 246–253.
Mauer MP, Hoen R, Jourd'heuil D . FE NO concentrations in World Trade Center responders and controls, 6 years post-9/11. Lung 2011; 189: 295–303.
Bhowmik A, Seemungal TA, Donaldson GC, Wedzicha JA . Effects of exacerbations and seasonality on exhaled nitric oxide in COPD. Eur Respir J 2005; 26: 1009–1015.
Seys SF, Daenen M, Dilissen E, Van Thienen R, Bullens DM, Hespel et al. Effects of high altitude and cold air exposure on airway inflammation in patients with asthma. Thorax 2013; 68: 906–913.
Barreto M, Villa MP, Monti F, Bohmerova Z, Martella S, Montesano M et al. Additive effect of eosinophilia and atopy on exhaled nitric oxide levels in children with or without a history of respiratory symptoms. Pediatr Allergy Immunol 2005; 16: 52–58.
Wong GW, Liu EK, Leung TF, Yung E, Ko FW, Hui DS et al. High levels and gender difference of exhaled nitric oxide in Chinese schoolchildren. Clin Exp Allergy 2005; 35: 889–893.
Olin A, Rosengren A, Thelle D, Lissner L, Bake B, Toren K . Height, age, and atopy are associated with fraction of exhaled nitric oxide in a large adult general population sample. Chest 2006; 130: 1319–1325.
Buchvald F, Baraidi E, Carraro S, Gaston B, De Jongste J, Pijnenburg M et al. Measurements of exhaled nitric oxide in healthy subjects age 4 to 17 years. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2005; 115: 1130–1136.
Kovesi T, Kulka R, Dales R . Exhaled nitric oxide concentration is affected by age, height, and race in healthy 9- to 12-year-old children. Chest 2008; 133: 169–175.
Kissoon N, Duckworth LJ, Blake KV, Murphy SP, Taylor CL, DeNicola LR et al. Exhaled nitric oxide concentrations: online versus offline values in healthy children. Pediatr Pulmonol 2002; 33: 283–292.
Avital A, Uwyyed K, Berkman N, Bar-Yishay E, Godfrey S, Springer C . Exhaled nitric oxide is age-dependent in asthma. Pediatr Pulmonol 2003; 36: 433–438.
Malinovschi A, Janson C, Holmkvist T, Norbäck D, Meriläinen P, Högman M . Effect of smoking on exhaled nitric oxide and flow-independent nitric oxide exchange parameters. Eur Respir J 2006; 28: 339–345.
Kharitonov SA, Robbins RA, Yates D, Keatings V, Barnes PJ . Acute and chronic effects of cigarette smoking on exhaled nitric oxide. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1995; 152: 609–612.
Antosova M, Bencova A, Psenkova A, Herle D, Rozborilova E . Exhaled nitric oxide - circadian variations in healthy subjects. Eur J Med Res 2009; 14: 6–8.
Mattes J, Storm van's Gravesande K, Moeller C, Moseler M, Brandis M, Kuehr J . Circadian variation of exhaled nitric oxide and urinary eosinophil protein X in asthmatic and healthy children. Pediatr Res 2002; 51: 190–194.
Stark H, Purokivi M, Kiviranta J, Randell J, Tukiainen H . Short-term and seasonal variations of exhaled and nasal NO in healthy subjects. Respir Med 2007; 101: 265–271.
Olin AC, Aldenbratt A, Ekman A, Ljungkvist G, Jungersten L, Alving K et al. Increased nitric oxide in exhaled air after intake of a nitrate-rich meal. Respir Med 2001; 95: 153–158.
Taylor ES, Smith AD, Cowan JO, Herbison GP, Taylor DR . Effect of caffeine ingestion on exhaled nitric oxide measurements in patients with asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2004; 169: 1019–1021.
Bruce C, Yates DH, Thomas PS . Caffeine decreases exhaled nitric oxide. Thorax 2002; 57: 361–363.
Piirilä P, Rouhos A, Kainu A, Sovijärvi AR . Reduction of fractional exhaled nitric oxide (FENO) and its variation by mouth wash. Scand J Clin Lab Invest 2012; 72: 253–257.
Yates DH, Kharitonov SA, Robbins RA, Thomas PS, Barnes PJ . The effect of alcohol ingestion on exhaled nitric oxide. Eur Respir J. 1996; 9: 1130–1133.
Persson MG, Cederqvist B, Wiklund CU, Gustafsson LE . Ethanol causes decrements in airway excretion of endogenous nitric oxide in humans. Eur J Pharmacol 1994; 270: 273–278.
Byrnes CA, Dinarevic S, Busst CA, Shinebourne EA, Bush A . Effect of measurement conditions on measured levels of peak exhaled nitric oxide. Thorax 1997; 52: 697–701.
Evjenth B, Hansen TE, Holt J . Exhaled nitric oxide decreases during exercise in non-asthmatic children. Clin Respir J 2012.
Persson M, Wiklund N, Gustafsson L . Endogenous nitric-oxide in single exhalations and the change during exercise. Am Rev Respir Dis 1993; 148: 1210–1214.
Kharitonov SA, Yates D, Barnes PJ . Increased nitric oxide in exhaled air of normal human subjects with upper respiratory tract infections. Eur Respir J 1995; 8: 295–297.
Malmberg LP, Petäys T, Haahtela T, Laatikainen T, Jousilahti P, Vartiainen E et al. Exhaled nitric oxide in healthy nonatopic school-age children: determinants and height-adjusted reference values. Pediatr Pulmonol 2006; 41: 635–642.
Gajdócsy R, Horváth I . Exhaled carbon monoxide in airway diseases: from research findings to clinical relevance. J Breath Res 2010; 4: 047102.
Zhang J, Yao X, Yu R, Bai J, Sun Y, Huang M et al. Exhaled carbon monoxide in asthmatics: a meta-analysis. Respir Res 2010; 11: 50.
Owens EO . Endogenous carbon monoxide production in disease. Clin Biochem 2010; 43: 1183–1188.
Babusikova E, Jesenak M, Durdik P, Dobrota D, Banovcin P . Exhaled carbon monoxide as a new marker of respiratory diseases in children. J Physiol Pharmacol 2008; 59: 9–17.
Antus B, Horváth I . Exhaled nitric oxide and carbon monoxide in respiratory diseases. J Breath Res 2007; 1: 024002.
Johnson RA, Johnson FK . The effects of carbon monoxide as a neurotransmitter. Curr Opin Neurol 2000; 13: 709–713.
Lee PJ, Alam J, Sylvester SL, Inamdar N, Otterbein L, Choi AM . Regulation of heme oxygenase-1 expression in vivo and in vitro in hyperoxic lung injury. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 1996; 14: 556–568.
Abd El Khalek KA, El Seify MY, Youssef OI, Badr MM . Diagnostic value of exhaled carbon monoxide as an early marker of exacerbation in children with chronic lung diseases. ISRN Pediatr 2012; 2012: 859873.
Dashdendev B, Fukushima LK, Woo MS, Ganbaatar E, Warburton D . Carbon monoxide pollution and lung function in urban compared with rural Mongolian children. Respirology 2011; 16: 653–658.
Yamaya M, Sekizawa K, Ishizuka S, Monma M, Sasaki H, Yamara M . Exhaled carbon monoxide levels during treatment of acute asthma. Eur Respir J 1999; 13: 757–760.
Jarvis MJ, Russell MA, Saloojee Y . Expired air carbon monoxide: a simple breath test of tobacco smoke intake. Br Med J 1980; 281: 484–485.
Nightingale JA, Maggs R, Cullinan P, Donnelly LE, Rogers DF, Kinnersley R et al. Airway inflammation after controlled exposure to diesel exhaust particulates. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2000; 162: 161–166.
Cavaliere F, Volpe C, Gargaruti R, Poscia A, Di Donato M, Grieco G et al. Effects of acute hypoventilation and hyperventilation on exhaled carbon monoxide measurement in healthy volunteers. BMC Pulm Med 2009; 9: 51.
Dorevitch S, Demirtas H, Scheff PA, Persky VW . Bias and confounding in longitudinal measures of exhaled monoxides. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol 2007; 17: 583–590.
Andersson JA, Uddman R, Cardell LO . Increased carbon monoxide levels in the nasal airways of subjects with a history of seasonal allergic rhinitis and in patients with upper respiratory tract infection. Clin Exp Allergy 2002; 32: 224–227.
Montuschi P, Kharitonov SA, Barnes PJ . Exhaled carbon monoxide and nitric oxide in COPD. Chest 2001; 120: 496–501.
Yamaya M, Sekizawa K, Ishizuka S, Monma M, Mizuta K, Sasaki H . Increased carbon monoxide in exhaled air of subjects with upper respiratory tract infections. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1998; 158: 311–314.
Togores B, Bosch M, Agustà AG . The measurement of exhaled carbon monoxide is influenced by airflow obstruction. Eur Respir J 2000; 15: 177–180.
Paredi P, Shah PL, Montuschi P, Sullivan P, Hodson ME, Kharitonov SA et al. Increased carbon monoxide in exhaled air of patients with cystic fibrosis. Thorax 1999; 54: 917–920.
Antuni JD, Kharitonov SA, Hughes D, Hodson ME, Barnes PJ . Increase in exhaled carbon monoxide during exacerbations of cystic fibrosis. Thorax 2000; 55: 138–142.
Zegdi R, Perrin D, Burdin M, Boiteau R, Tenaillon A . Increased endogenous carbon monoxide production in severe sepsis. Intensive Care Med 2002; 28: 793–796.
Paredi P, Biernacki W, Invernizzi G, Kharitonov SA, Barnes PJ . Exhaled carbon monoxide levels elevated in diabetes and correlated with glucose concentration in blood: a new test for monitoring the disease? Chest 1999; 116: 1007–1011.
Zayasu K, Sekizawa K, Okinaga S, Yamaya M, Ohrui T, Sasaki H . Increased carbon monoxide in exhaled air of asthmatic patients. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1997; 156: 1140–1143.
Cheng S, Lyass A, Massaro JM, O'Connor GT, Keaney JF, Jr ., Vasan RS . Exhaled carbon monoxide and risk of metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease in the community. Circulation 2010; 122: 1470–1477.
Zetterquist W, Marteus H, Johannesson M, Nordval SL, Ihre E, Lundberg JO et al. Exhaled carbon monoxide is not elevated in patients with asthma or cystic fibrosis. Eur Respir J 2002; 20: 92–99.
Vimercati L, Carrus A, Bisceglia L, Tatò I, Bellotta MR, Russo A et al. Biological monitoring and allergic sensitization in traffic police officers exposed to urban air pollution. Int J Immunopathol Pharmacol 2006; 19: 57–60.
Hewat VN, Foster EV, O'Brien GD, Town GI . Ambient and exhaled carbon monoxide levels in a high traffic density area in Christchurch. N Z Med J 1998; 111: 343–344.
Cope KA, Watson MT, Foster WM, Sehnert SS, Risby TH . Effects of ventilation on the collection of exhaled breath in humans. J Appl Physiol 2004; 96: 1371–1379.
Jones AY, Lam PK . End-expiratory carbon monoxide levels in healthy subjects living in a densely populated urban environment. Sci Total Environ 2006; 354: 150–156.
Sandberg A, Sköld CM, Grunewald J, Eklund A, Wheelock Å . Assessing recent smoking status by measuring exhaled carbon monoxide levels. PLoS One 2011; 6: e28864.
Scheicher ME, Terra Filho J, Vianna EO . Sputum induction: review of literature and proposal for a protocol. Sao Paulo Med J 2003; 121: 213–219.
Davies AR, Hancox RJ . Induced sputum in asthma: diagnostic and therapeutic implications. Curr Opin Pulm Med. 2013; 19: 60–65.
Szefler SJ, Wenzel S, Brown R, Erzurum SC, Fahy JV, Hamilton RG et al. Asthma outcomes: biomarkers. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2012; 129: S9–23.
Paggiaro PL, Chanez P, Holz O, Ind PW, Djukanović R, Maestrelli et al. Sputum induction. Eur Respir J Suppl 2002; 37: 3s–8s.
Fahy JV . A safe, simple, standardized method should be used for sputum induction for research purposes. Clin Exp Allergy 1998; 28: 1047–1049.
Loh LC, Eg KP, Puspanathan P, Tang SP, Yip KS, Vijayasingham et al. A comparison of sputum induction methods: ultrasonic vs compressed-air nebulizer and hypertonic vs isotonic saline inhalation. Asian Pac J Allergy Immunol 2004; 22: 11–17.
Reddel HK, Taylor DR, Bateman ED, Boulet LP, Boushey HA, Busse WW et al. An official American Thoracic Society/European Respiratory Society statement: asthma control and exacerbations: standardizing endpoints for clinical asthma trials and clinical practice. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2009; 180: 59–99.
Covar RA, Spahn JD, Martin RJ, Silkoff PE, Sundstrom DA, Murphy J et al. Safety and application of induced sputum analysis in childhood asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2004; 114: 575–582.
Gibson PG, Henry RL, Thomas P . Noninvasive assessment of airway inflammation in children: induced sputum, exhaled nitric oxide, and breath condensate. Eur Respir J 2000; 16: 1008–1015.
Belda J, Leigh R, Parameswaran K, O'Byrne PM, Sears MR, Hargreave FE . Induced sputum cell counts in healthy adults. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2000; 161: 475–478.
Spanevello A, Confalonieri M, Sulotto F, Romano F, Balzano G, Migliori GB et al. Induced sputum cellularity. Reference values and distribution in normal volunteers. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2000; 162: 1172–1174.
Bacci E, Cianchetti S, Carnevali S, Bartoli ML, Dente FL, Di Franco A et al. Induced sputum is a reproducible method to assess airway inflammation in asthma. Mediators Inflamm. 2002; 11: 293–298.
Spanevello A, Migliori GB, Sharara A, Ballardini L, Bridge P, Pisati et al. Induced sputum to assess airway inflammation: a study of reproducibility. Clin Exp Allergy 1997; 27: 1138–1144.
Kips JC, Peleman RA, Pauwels RA . Methods of examining induced sputum: do differences matter? Eur Respir J 1998; 11: 529–533.
Popov TA, Pizzichini MM, Pizzichini E, Kolendowicz R, Punthakee Z, Dolovich J et al. Some technical factors influencing the induction of sputum for cell analysis. Eur Respir J 1995; 8: 559–565.
van der Vaart H, Postma DS, Timens W, Kauffman HF, Hylkema MN, Ten Hacken NH . Repeated sputum inductions induce a transient neutrophilic and eosinophilic response. Chest 2006; 130: 1157–1164.
Lemiere C . Induced sputum and exhaled nitric oxide as noninvasive markers of airway inflammation from work exposures. Curr Opin Allergy Clin Immunol 2007; 7: 133–137.
Peleman RA, Rytilä PH, Kips JC, Joos GF, Pauwels RA . The cellular composition of induced sputum in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Eur Respir J 1999; 13: 839–843.
Dragonieri S, Musti M, Izzo C, Esposito LM, Foschino Barbaro MP, Resta O et al. Sputum induced cellularity in a group of traffic policemen. Sci Total Environ 2006; 367: 433–436.
Giovagnoli MR, Alderisio M, Cenci M, Nofroni I, Vecchione A . Carbon and hemosiderin-laden macrophages in sputum of traffic policeman exposed to air pollution. Arch Environ Health 1999; 54: 284–290.
Roy S, Ray MR, Basu C, Lahiri P, Lahiri T . Abundance of siderophages in sputum: indicator of an adverse lung reaction to air pollution. Acta Cytol 2001; 45: 958–964.
Lahiri T, Roy S, Basu C, Ganguly S, Ray MR, Lahiri P . Air pollution in Calcutta elicits adverse pulmonary reaction in children. Indian J Med Res 2000; 112: 21–26.
Jacobs L, Emmerechts J, Hoylaerts MF, Mathieu C, Hoet PH, Nemery B et al. Traffic air pollution and oxidized LDL. PLoS One 2011; 6: e16200.
Jacobs L, Emmerechts J, Mathieu C, Hoylaerts MF, Fierens F, Hoet PH et al. Air pollution related prothrombotic changes in persons with diabetes. Environ Health Perspect 2010; 118: 191–196.
McCreanor J, Cullinan P, Nieuwenhuijsen MJ, Stewart-Evans J, Malliarou E, Jarup L et al. Respiratory effects of exposure to diesel traffic in persons with asthma. N Engl J Med 2007; 357: 2348–2358.
Vagaggini B, Taccola M, Cianchetti S, Carnevali S, Bartoli ML, Bacci E et al. Ozone exposure increases eosinophilic airway response induced by previous allergen challenge. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2002; 166: 1073–1077.
Nordenhäll C, Pourazar J, Ledin MC, Levin JO, Sandström T, Adelroth E . Diesel exhaust enhances airway responsiveness in asthmatic subjects. Eur Respir J 2001; 17: 909–915.
Gong H, Linn WS, Terrell SL, Anderson KR, Clark KW . Anti-inflammatory and lung function effects of montelukast in asthmatic volunteers exposed to sulfur dioxide. Chest 2001; 119: 402–408.
Hiltermann JT, Lapperre TS, van Bree L, Steerenberg PA, Brahim JJ, Sont JK et al. Ozone-induced inflammation assessed in sputum and bronchial lavage fluid from asthmatics: a new noninvasive tool in epidemiologic studies on air pollution and asthma. Free Radic Biol Med 1999; 27: 1448–1454.
Bosson J, Pourazar J, Forsberg B, Adelroth E, Sandström T, Blomberg A . Ozone enhances the airway inflammation initiated by diesel exhaust. Respir Med 2007; 101: 1140–1146.
Nordenhäll C, Pourazar J, Blomberg A, Levin JO, Sandström T, Adelroth E . Airway inflammation following exposure to diesel exhaust: a study of time kinetics using induced sputum. Eur Respir J 2000; 15: 1046–1051.
Fahy JV, Wong HH, Liu JT, Boushey HA . Analysis of induced sputum after air and ozone exposures in healthy subjects. Environ Res 1995; 70: 77–83.
Alexis NE, Lay JC, Almond M, Bromberg PA, Patel DD, Peden DB . Acute LPS inhalation in healthy volunteers induces dendritic cell maturation in vivo. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2005; 115: 345–350.
Thomas RA, Green RH, Brightling CE, Birring SS, Parker D, Wardlaw AJ et al. The influence of age on induced sputum differential cell counts in normal subjects. Chest 2004; 126: 1811–1814.
Todd DC, Armstrong S, D'Silva L, Allen CJ, Hargreave FE, Parameswaran K . Effect of obesity on airway inflammation: a cross-sectional analysis of body mass index and sputum cell counts. Clin Exp Allergy 2007; 37: 1049–1054.
Popov TA, Shenkada MS, Tzoncheva AV, Pravtchanska MP, Mustakov TB, Dimitrov VD . Circadian changes in the sputum of asthmatic subjects and healthy controls. World Allergy Organ J 2008; 1: 74–78.
Panzer SE, Dodge AM, Kelly EA, Jarjour NN . Circadian variation of sputum inflammatory cells in mild asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2003; 111: 308–312.
Lensmar C, Elmberger G, Skold M, Eklund A . Smoking alters the phenotype of macrophages in induced sputum. Respir Med 1998; 92: 415–420.
Davidson WJ, Verity WS, Traves SL, Leigh R, Ford GT, Eves ND . Effect of incremental exercise on airway and systemic inflammation in patients with COPD. J Appl Physiol 2012; 112: 2049–2056.
Hentschel J, Muller U, Doht F, Fischer N, Boer K, Sonnemann J et al. Influences of nasal lavage collection-, processing- and storage methods on inflammatory markers—evaluation of a method for non-invasive sampling of epithelial lining fluid in cystic fibrosis and other respiratory diseases. J Immunol Methods 2014; 404: 41–51.
Alexis NE . Biomarker sampling of the airways in asthma. Curr Opin Pulm Med 2014; 20: 46–52.
Howarth PH, Persson CG, Meltzer EO, Jacobson MR, Durham SR, Silkoff PE . Objective monitoring of nasal airway inflammation in rhinitis. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2005; 115: S414–S441.
Chawes BLK, Edwards MJ, Shamji B, Walker C, Nicholson GC, Tan AJ et al. A novel method for assessing unchallenged levels of mediators in nasal epithelial lining fluid. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2010; 125: 1387–9.e3.
Nikasinovic-Fournier L, Just J, Seta N, Callais F, Sahraoui F, Grimfeld A et al. Nasal lavage as a tool for the assessment of upper-airway inflammation in adults and children. J Lab Clin Med 2002; 139: 173–180.
Manthei DM, Schwantes EA, Mathur SK, Guadarrama AG, Kelly EA, Gern JE et al. Nasal lavage VEGF and TNF-alpha levels during a natural cold predict asthma exacerbations. Clin Exp Allergy 2014; 44: 1484–1493.
Noah TL, Henderson FW, Henry MM, Peden DB, Devlin RB . Nasal lavage cytokines in normal, allergic, and asthmatic school-age children. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1995; 152: 1290–1296.
Svensson C, Andersson M, Persson CG, Venge P, Alkner U, Pipkorn U . Albumin, bradykinins, and eosinophil cationic protein on the nasal mucosal surface in patients with hay fever during natural allergen exposure. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1990; 85: 828–833.
Chen BY, Chan CC, Lee CT, Cheng TJ, Huang WC, Jhou JC et al. The association of ambient air pollution with airway inflammation in schoolchildren. Am J Epidemiol 2012; 175: 764–774.
Kopp MV, Ulmer C, Ihorst G, Seydewitz HH, Frischer T, Forster J et al. Upper airway inflammation in children exposed to ambient ozone and potential signs of adaptation. Eur Respir J 1999; 14: 854–861.
Frischer T, Pullwitt A, Kuhr J, Meinert R, Haschke N, Studnicka M et al. Aromatic hydroxylation in nasal lavage fluid following ambient ozone exposure. Free Radic Biol Med 1997; 22: 201–207.
Calderón-Garcidueñas L, Villarreal-Calderon R, Valencia-Salazar G, HenrÃquez-Roldán C, Gutiérrez-Castrellón P, Torres-Jardón R et al. Systemic inflammation, endothelial dysfunction, and activation in clinically healthy children exposed to air pollutants. Inhal Toxicol 2008; 20: 499–506.
Koren HS, Hatch GE, Graham DE . Nasal lavage as a tool in assessing acute inflammation in response to inhaled pollutants. Toxicology 1990; 60: 15–25.
Hiltermann TJ, de Bruijne CR, Stolk J, Zwinderman AH, Spieksma FT, Roemer W et al. Effects of photochemical air pollution and allergen exposure on upper respiratory tract inflammation in asthmatics. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1997; 156: 1765–1772.
Gomes EC, Stone V, Florida-James G . Impact of heat and pollution on oxidative stress and CC16 secretion after 8 km run. Eur J Appl Physiol 2011; 111: 2089–2097.
Larsson BM, Grunewald J, Skold CM, Lundin A, Sandstrom T, Eklund A et al. Limited airway effects in mild asthmatics after exposure to air pollution in a road tunnel. Respir Med 2010; 104: 1912–1918.
Diaz-Sanchez D, Dotson AR, Takenaka H, Saxon A . Diesel exhaust particles induce local IgE production in vivo and alter the pattern of IgE messenger RNA isoforms. J Cini Invest 1994; 94: 1417–1425.
Steenhof M, Mudway IS, Gosens I, Hoek G, Godri KJ, Kelly FJ et al. Acute nasal pro-inflammatory response to air pollution depends on characteristics other than particle mass concentration or oxidative potential: the RAPTES project. Occup Environ Med 2013; 70: 341–348.
Wang JH, Devalia JL, Duddle JM, Hamilton SA, Davies RJ . Effect of six-hour exposure to nitrogen dioxide on early-phase nasal response to allergen challenge in patients with a history of seasonal allergic rhinitis. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1995; 96: 669–676.
Polat D, Eberwein G, Becker A, Weishaupt C, Schins RP, Ranft U et al. Ambient exposure and nasal inflammation in adults and children—a preliminary analysis. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2002; 205: 229–234.
Laumbach RJ, Fiedler N, Gardner CR, Laskin DL, Fan ZH, Zhang J et al. Nasal effects of a mixture of volatile organic compounds and their ozone oxidation products. J Occup Environ Med 2005; 47: 1182–1189.
Heath SK, Koenig JQ, Morgan MS, Checkoway H, Hanley QS, Rebolledo V . Effects of sulfur dioxide exposure on African-American and Caucasian asthmatics. Environ Res 1994; 66: 1–11.
Sienra-Monge JJ, Ramirez-Aguilar M, Moreno-Macias H, Reyes-Ruiz NI, Del Rio-Navarro BE, Ruiz-Navarro MX et al. Antioxidant supplementation and nasal inflammatory responses among young asthmatics exposed to high levels of ozone. Clin Exp Immunol2004; 138: 317–322.
Noah TL, Zhou H, Zhang H, Horvath K, Robinette C, Kesic M et al. Diesel exhaust exposure and nasal response to attenuated influenza in normal and allergic volunteers. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2012; 185: 179–185.
Togias AG, Naclerio RM, Proud D, Fish JE, Adkinson NF, Jr ., Kagey-Sobotka A et al. Nasal challenge with cold, dry air results in release of inflammatory mediators. Possible mast cell involvement. J Clin Invest 1985; 76: 1375–1381.
Cruz AA, Naclerio RM, Proud D, Togias A . Epithelial shedding is associated with nasal reactions to cold, dry air. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2006; 117: 1351–1358.
Assanasen P, Baroody FM, Naureckas E, Naclerio RM . Hot, humid air increases cellular influx during the late-phase response to nasal challenge with antigen. Clin Exp Allergy 2001; 31: 1913–1922.
Sardella A, Voisin C, Dumont X, Marcucci F, Bernard A . Nasal epithelium biomarkers in young children: associations with allergic sensitization and environmental stressors. Pediatr Pulmonol 2013; 48: 571–578.
Barrenas F, Andersson B, Cardell LO, Langston M, Mobini R, Perkins A et al. Gender differences in inflammatory proteins and pathways in seasonal allergic rhinitis. Cytokine 2008; 42: 325–329.
Nicola ML, Carvalho HB, Yoshida CT, Anjos FM, Nakao M, Santos Ude et al. Young "healthy" smokers have functional and inflammatory changes in the nasal and the lower airways. Chest 2014; 145: 998–1005.
Heber D, Li Z, Garcia-Lloret M, Wong AM, Lee TY, Thames G et al. Sulforaphane-rich broccoli sprout extract attenuates nasal allergic response to diesel exhaust particles. Food Funct 2014; 5: 35–41.
Noah TL, Zhang H, Zhou H, Glista-Baker E, Muller L, Bauer RN et al. Effect of broccoli sprouts on nasal response to live attenuated influenza virus in smokers: a randomized, double-blind study. PLoS One 2014; 9: e98671.
Kendzia B, Pesch B, Marczynski B, Lotz A, Welge P, Rihs HP et al. Pre- and postshift levels of inflammatory biomarkers and DNA damage in non-bitumen-exposed construction workers-subpopulation of the German Human Bitumen Study. J Toxicol Environ Health A 2012; 75: 533–543.
Decramer S, Gonzalez de Peredo A, Breuil B, Mischak H, Monsarrat B, Bascands JL et al. Urine in clinical proteomics. Mol Cell Proteomics 2008; 7: 1850–1862.
Thongboonkerd V . Practical points in urinary proteomics. J Proteome Res 2007; 6: 3881–3890.
Good DM, Thongboonkerd V, Novak J, Bascands JL, Schanstra JP, Coon JJ et al. Body fluid proteomics for biomarker discovery: lessons from the past hold the key to success in the future. J Proteome Res 2007; 6: 4549–4555.
Il'yasova D, Scarbrough P, Spasojevic I . Urinary biomarkers of oxidative status. Clin Chim Acta 2012; 413: 1446–1453.
Court M, Selevsek N, Matondo M, Allory Y, Garin J, Masselon CD et al. Toward a standardized urine proteome analysis methodology. Proteomics 2011; 11: 1160–1171.
Afkarian M, Bhasin M, Dillon ST, Guerrero MC, Nelson RG, Knowler WC et al. Optimizing a proteomics platform for urine biomarker discovery. Mol Cell Proteomics 2010; 9: 2195–2204.
Roberts LJ, Morrow JD . Measurement of F(2)-isoprostanes as an index of oxidative stress in vivo. Free Radic Biol Med 2000; 28: 505–513.
Morrow JD . The isoprostanes: their quantification as an index of oxidant stress status in vivo. Drug Metab Rev 2000; 32: 377–385.
Richelle M, Turini ME, Guidoux R, Tavazzi I, Metairon S, Fay LB . Urinary isoprostane excretion is not confounded by the lipid content of the diet. FEBS Lett 1999; 459: 259–262.
Brown ED, Morris VC, Rhodes DG, Sinha R, Levander OA . Urinary malondialdehyde-equivalents during ingestion of meat cooked at high or low temperatures. Lipids 1995; 30: 1053–1056.
Kadiiska MB, Gladen BC, Baird DD, Germolec D, Graham LB, Parker CE et al. Biomarkers of oxidative stress study II: are oxidation products of lipids, proteins, and DNA markers of CCl4 poisoning? Free Radic Biol Med 2005; 38: 698–710.
Bottini PV, Ribeiro Alves MA, Garlipp CR . Electrophoretic pattern of concentrated urine: comparison between 24-hour collection and random samples. Am J Kidney Dis 2002; 39: E2.
Matsumoto Y, Ogawa Y, Yoshida R, Shimamori A, Kasai H, Ohta H . The stability of the oxidative stress marker, urinary 8-hydroxy-2'- deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG), when stored at room temperature. J Occup Health 2008; 50: 366–372.
Pilger A, Rüdiger HW . 8-Hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine as a marker of oxidative DNA damage related to occupational and environmental exposures. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 2006; 80: 1–15.
Basu S . F2-isoprostanes in human health and diseases: from molecular mechanisms to clinical implications. Antioxid Redox Signal 2008; 10: 1405–1434.
Valavanidis A, Vlachogianni T, Fiotakis C . 8-hydroxy-2' -deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG): a critical biomarker of oxidative stress and carcinogenesis. J Environ Sci Health C Environ Carcinog Ecotoxicol Rev 2009; 27: 120–139.
Cooke MS, Evans MD, Herbert KE, Lunec J . Urinary 8-oxo-2'-deoxyguanosine—source, significance and supplements. Free Radic Res 2000; 32: 381–397.
Wang TC, Song YS, Wang H, Zhang J, Yu SF, Gu YE et al. Oxidative DNA damage and global DNA hypomethylation are related to folate deficiency in chromate manufacturing workers. J Hazard Mater 2012; 213-214: 440–446.
Huang HB, Lai CH, Chen GW, Lin YY, Jaakkola JJ, Liou SH et al. Traffic-related air pollution and DNA damage: a longitudinal study in Taiwanese traffic conductors. PLoS One 2012; 7: e37412.
Autrup H, Daneshvar B, Dragsted LO, Gamborg M, Hansen M, Loft S et al. Biomarkers for exposure to ambient air pollution—comparison of carcinogen-DNA adduct levels with other exposure markers and markers for oxidative stress. Environ Health Perspect 1999; 107: 233–238.
Loft S, Poulsen HE, Vistisen K, Knudsen LE . Increased urinary excretion of 8-oxo-2'-deoxyguanosine, a biomarker of oxidative DNA damage, in urban bus drivers. Mutat Res 1999; 441: 11–19.
Bagryantseva Y, Novotna B, Rossner P, Chvatalova I, Milcova A, Svecova V et al. Oxidative damage to biological macromolecules in Prague bus drivers and garagemen: impact of air pollution and genetic polymorphisms. Toxicol Lett. 2010; 199: 60–68.
Han YY, Donovan M, Sung FC . Increased urinary 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine excretion in long-distance bus drivers in Taiwan. Chemosphere 2010; 79: 942–948.
Rossner P, Svecova V, Milcova A, Lnenickova Z, Solansky I, Sram RJ . Seasonal variability of oxidative stress markers in city bus drivers. Part I. Oxidative damage to DNA. Mutat Res 2008; 642: 14–20.
Rossner P, Svecova V, Milcova A, Lnenickova Z, Solansky I, Santella RM et al. Oxidative and nitrosative stress markers in bus drivers. Mutat Res 2007; 617: 23–32.
Wei Y, Han IK, Shao M, Hu M, Zhang OJ, Tang X . PM2.5 constituents and oxidative DNA damage in humans. Environ Sci Technol 2009; 43: 4757–4762.
Wei Y, Han IK, Hu M, Shao M, Zhang JJ, Tang X . Personal exposure to particulate PAHs and anthraquinone and oxidative DNA damages in humans. Chemosphere 2010; 81: 1280–1285.
Nuernberg AM, Boyce PD, Cavallari JM, Fang SC, Eisen EA, Christiani DC . Urinary 8-isoprostane and 8-OHdG concentrations in boilermakers with welding exposure. J Occup Environ Med 2008; 50: 182–189.
Kim JY, Mukherjee S, Ngo LC, Christiani DC . Urinary 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine as a biomarker of oxidative DNA damage in workers exposed to fine particulates. Environ Health Perspect 2004; 112: 666–671.
Fan R, Wang D, Mao C, Ou S, Lian Z, Huang S et al. Preliminary study of children's exposure to PAHs and its association with 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine in Guangzhou, China. Environ Int 2012; 42: 53–58.
Buthbumrung N, Mahidol C, Navasumrit P, Promvijit J, Hunsonti P, Autrup H et al. Oxidative DNA damage and influence of genetic polymorphisms among urban and rural schoolchildren exposed to benzene. Chem Biol Interact 2008; 172: 185–194.
Sørensen M, Autrup H, Hertel O, Wallin H, Knudsen LE, Loft S . Personal exposure to PM2.5 and biomarkers of DNA damage. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2003; 12: 191–196.
Allen J, Trenga CA, Peretz A, Sullivan JH, Carlsten CC, Kaufman JD . Effect of diesel exhaust inhalation on antioxidant and oxidative stress responses in adults with metabolic syndrome. Inhal Toxicol 2009; 21: 1061–1067.
Rossner P, Rossnerova A, Spatova M, Beskid O, Uhlirova K, Libalova H et al. Analysis of biomarkers in a Czech population exposed to heavy air pollution. Part II: chromosomal aberrations and oxidative stress. Mutagenesis 2013; 28: 97–106.
Ren C, Vokonas PS, Suh H, Fang S, Christiani DC, Schwartz J . Effect modification of air pollution on Urinary 8-Hydroxy-2'-Deoxyguanosine by genotypes: an application of the multiple testing procedure to identify significant SNP interactions. Environ Health 2010; 9: 78.
Ren C, Fang S, Wright RO, Suh H, Schwartz J . Urinary 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine as a biomarker of oxidative DNA damage induced by ambient pollution in the Normative Aging Study. Occup Environ Med 2011; 68: 562–569.
Suzuki J, Inoue Y, Suzuki S . Changes in the urinary excretion level of 8-hydroxyguanine by exposure to reactive oxygen-generating substances. Free Radic Biol Med 1995; 18: 431–436.
Andreoli R, Protano C, Manini P, De Palma G, Goldoni M, Petyx M et al. Association between environmental exposure to benzene and oxidative damage to nucleic acids in children. Med Lav 2012; 103: 324–337.
Kim JH, Choi YH, Bae S, Park HY, Hong YC . eNOS gene polymorphisms modify the association of PM(10) with oxidative stress. Toxicol Lett 2012; 214: 263–267.
Bae S, Pan XC, Kim SY, Park K, Kim YH, Kim H et al. Exposures to particulate matter and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and oxidative stress in schoolchildren. Environ Health Perspect 2010; 118: 579–583.
Yoon HS, Lee KM, Lee KH, Kim S, Choi K, Kang D . Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (1-OHPG and 2-naphthol) and oxidative stress (malondialdehyde) biomarkers in urine among Korean adults and children. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2012; 215: 458–464.
Jacquemin B, Lanki T, Yli-Tuomi T, Vallius M, Hoek G, Heinrich J et al. Source category-specific PM2.5 and urinary levels of Clara cell protein CC16. The ULTRA study. Inhal Toxicol 2009; 21: 1068–1076.
Timonen KL, Hoek G, Heinrich J, Bernard A, Brunekreef B, de Hartog J et al. Daily variation in fine and ultrafine particulate air pollution and urinary concentrations of lung Clara cell protein CC16. Occup Environ Med 2004; 61: 908–914.
Bräuner EV, Mortensen J, Møller P, Bernard A, Vinzents P, Wåhlin et al. Effects of ambient air particulate exposure on blood-gas barrier permeability and lung function. Inhal Toxicol 2009; 21: 38–47.
Bernatsky S, Fournier M, Pineau CA, Clarke AE, Vinet E, Smargiassi A . Associations between ambient fine particulate levels and disease activity in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). Environ Health Perspect 2011; 119: 45–49.
Verplanke AJ, Leummens MH, Herber RF . Occupational exposure to tetrachloroethene and its effects on the kidneys. J Occup Environ Med 1999; 41: 11–16.
Rehwagen M, Krumbiegel P, Koschny I, Rolle-Kampczyk U, Richter M . Herbarth. The [15 N]methacetin liver function test characterizes multicomponent exposure of children in industrially polluted regions. Isotopes Environ Health Stud 2001; 37: 167–174.
Hansen AM, Wallin H, Binderup ML, Dybdahl M, Autrup H, Loft S et al. Urinary 1-hydroxypyrene and mutagenicity in bus drivers and mail carriers exposed to urban air pollution in Denmark. Mutat Res 2004; 557: 7–17.
Pilger A, Germadnik D, Riedel K, Meger-Kossien I, Scherer G, Rudiger HW . Longitudinal study of urinary 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine excretion in healthy adults. Free Radic Res 2001; 35: 273–280.
Loft S, Vistisen K, Ewertz M, Tjonneland A, Overvad K, Poulsen HE . Oxidative DNA damage estimated by 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine excretion in humans: influence of smoking, gender and body mass index. Carcinogenesis 1992; 13: 2241–2247.
Sakano N, Takahashi N, Wang DH, Sauriasari R, Takemoto K, Kanbara S et al. Plasma 3-nitrotyrosine, urinary 8-isoprostane and 8-OHdG among healthy Japanese people. Free Radic Res 2009; 43: 183–192.
Tufvesson E, Svensson H, Ankerst J, Bjermer L . Increase of club cell (Clara) protein (CC16) in plasma and urine after exercise challenge in asthmatics and healthy controls, and correlations to exhaled breath temperature and exhaled nitric oxide. Respir Med 2013; 107: 1675–1681.
Horváth I, Hunt J, Barnes PJ, Alving K, Antczak A, Baraldi E et al. Exhaled breath condensate: methodological recommendations and unresolved questions. Eur Respir J 2005; 26: 523–548.
Davis MD, Montpetit A, Hunt J . Exhaled breath condensate: an overview. Immunol Allergy Clin North Am 2012; 32: 363–375.
Hom S, Walsh B, Hunt J . Matrix effect in exhaled breath condensate interferon-gamma immunoassay. J Breath Res 2008; 2: 041001.
Effros RM, Hoagland KW, Bosbous M, Castillo D, Foss B, Dunning M et al. Dilution of respiratory solutes in exhaled condensates. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2002; 165: 663–669.
Chérot-Kornobis N, Hulo S, de Broucker V, Hassoun S, Lepage N, Edmé JL et al. Induced Sputum, Exhaled NO, and Breath Condensate in Occupational Medicine. J Occup Environ Med 2012; 54: 922–927.
Grob NM, Aytekin M, Dweik RA . Biomarkers in exhaled breath condensate: a review of collection, processing and analysis. J Breath Res 2008; 2: 037004.
Rosias P . Methodological aspects of exhaled breath condensate collection and analysis. J Breath Res 2012; 6: 027102.
Czebe K, Barta I, Antus B, Valyon M, Horváth I, Kullmann T . Influence of condensing equipment and temperature on exhaled breath condensate pH, total protein and leukotriene concentrations. Respir Med 2008; 102: 720–725.
Vyas A, Zhang Q, Gunaratne S, Lee W, Lin JL, Lin JS et al. The effect of temperature on exhaled breath condensate collection. J Breath Res 2012; 6: 036002.
Ahmadzai H, Huang S, Hettiarachchi R, Lin JL, Thomas PS, Zhang Q . Exhaled breath condensate: a comprehensive update. Clin Chem Lab Med 2013; 51: 1343–1361.
Hunt J . Condensing exhaled breath into science. Chest 2011; 139: 5–6.
van Beurden WJ, Harff GA, Dekhuijzen PN, van den Bosch MJ, Creemers JP, Smeenk FW . An efficient and reproducible method for measuring hydrogen peroxide in exhaled breath condensate. Respir Med 2002; 96: 197–203.
Vaughan J, Ngamtrakulpanit L, Pajewski TN, Turner R, Nguyen TA, Smith A et al. Exhaled breath condensate pH is a robust and reproducible assay of airway acidity. Eur Respir J 2003; 22: 889–894.
Effros RM, Biller J, Foss B, Hoagland K, Dunning MB, Castillo D et al. A simple method for estimating respiratory solute dilution in exhaled breath condensates. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2003; 168: 1500–1505.
Kullmann T, Barta I, Antus B, Valyon M, Horvath I . Environmental temperature and relative humidity influence exhaled breath condensate pH. Eur Respir J 2008; 31: 474–475.
Horváth I, Donnelly LE, Kiss A, Kharitonov SA, Lim S, Chung KF et al. Combined use of exhaled hydrogen peroxide and nitric oxide in monitoring asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1998; 158: 1042–1046.
Emelyanov A, Fedoseev G, Abulimity A, Rudinski K, Fedoulov A, Karabanov A et al. Elevated concentrations of exhaled hydrogen peroxide in asthmatic patients. Chest 2001; 120: 1136–1139.
Celik M, Tuncer A, Soyer OU, Saçkesen C, Tanju Besler H, Kalayci O . Oxidative stress in the airways of children with asthma and allergic rhinitis. Pediatr Allergy Immunol 2012; 23: 556–561.
Ueno T, Kataoka M, Hirano A, Iio K, Tanimoto Y, Kanehiro A et al. Inflammatory markers in exhaled breath condensate from patients with asthma. Respirology 2008; 13: 654–663.
Psathakis K, Mermigkis D, Papatheodorou G, Loukides S, Panagou P, Polychronopoulos V et al. Exhaled markers of oxidative stress in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Eur J Clin Invest 2006; 36: 362–367.
Dalaveris E, Kerenidi T, Katsabeki-Katsafli A, Kiropoulos T, Tanou K, Gourgoulianis KI et al. VEGF, TNF-alpha and 8-isoprostane levels in exhaled breath condensate and serum of patients with lung cancer. Lung Cancer 2009; 64: 219–225.
MacNee W, Rennard SI, Hunt JF, Edwards LD, Miller BE, Locantore NW et al. Evaluation of exhaled breath condensate pH as a biomarker for COPD. Respir Med 2011; 105: 1037–1045.
Kuban P, Foret F . Exhaled breath condensate: determination of non-volatile compounds and their potential for clinical diagnosis and monitoring. A review. Anal Chim Acta 2013; 805: 1–18.
Corradi M, Alinovi R, Goldoni M, Vettori M, Folesani G, Mozzoni et al. Biomarkers of oxidative stress after controlled human exposure to ozone. Toxicol Lett 2002; 134: 219–225.
Alfaro MF, Walby WF, Adams WC, Schelegle ES . Breath condensate levels of 8-isoprostane and leukotriene B4 after ozone inhalation are greater in sensitive versus nonsensitive subjects. Exp Lung Res 2007; 33: 115–133.
Sawyer K, Samet JM, Ghio AJ, Pleil JD, Madden MC . Responses measured in the exhaled breath of human volunteers acutely exposed to ozone and diesel exhaust. J Breath Res 2008; 2: 037019.
Rundell KW, Slee JB, Caviston R, Hollenbach AM . Decreased lung function after inhalation of ultrafine and fine particulate matter during exercise is related to decreased total nitrate in exhaled breath condensate. Inhal Toxicol 2008; 20: 1–9.
Gong J, Zhu T, Kipen H, Wang G, Hu M, Ohman-Strickland et al. Malondialdehyde in exhaled breath condensate and urine as a biomarker of air pollution induced oxidative stress. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol 2013; 23: 322–327.
Manney S, Meddings CM, Harrison RM, Mansur AH, Karakatsani A, Analitis A et al. Association between exhaled breath condensate nitrate+nitrite levels with ambient coarse particle exposure in subjects with airways disease. Occup Environ Med 2012; 69: 663–669.
Vagaggini B, Bartoli ML, Cianchetti S, Costa F, Bacci E, Dente FL et al. Increase in markers of airway inflammation after ozone exposure can be observed also in stable treated asthmatics with minimal functional response to ozone. Respir Res 2010; 11: 5.
Romieu I, Barraza-Villarreal A, Escamilla-Nuñez C, Almstrand AC, Diaz-Sanchez D, Sly PD et al. Exhaled breath malondialdehyde as a marker of effect of exposure to air pollution in children with asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2008; 121: 903–9.e6.
Patel MM, Chillrud SN, Deepti KC, Ross JM, Kinney PL . Traffic-related air pollutants and exhaled markers of airway inflammation and oxidative stress in New York City adolescents. Environ Res 2013; 121: 71–78.
Mills NL, Robinson SD, Fokkens PH, Leseman DL, Miller MR, Anderson D et al. Exposure to concentrated ambient particles does not affect vascular function in patients with coronary heart disease. Environ Health Perspect 2008; 116: 709–715.
Greenwald R, Ferdinands JM, Teague WG . Ionic determinants of exhaled breath condensate pH before and after exercise in adolescent athletes. Pediatr Pulmonol 2009; 44: 768–777.
Marek E, Volke J, Muckenhoff K, Platen P, Marek W . Exercise in cold air and hydrogen peroxide release in exhaled breath condensate. Adv Exp Med Biol 2013; 756: 169–177.
Bloemen K, Lissens G, Desager K, Schoeters G . Determinants of variability of protein content, volume and pH of exhaled breath condensate. Respir Med 2007; 101: 1331–1337.
Nowak D, Kalucka S, Białasiewicz P, Król M . Exhalation of H2O2 and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARs) by healthy subjects. Free Radic Biol Med 2001; 30: 178–186.
Jobsis Q, Raatgeep HC, Schellekens SL, Hop WC, Hermans PW, de Jongste JC . Hydrogen peroxide in exhaled air of healthy children: reference values. Eur Respir J 1998; 12: 483–485.
Brooks SM, Haight RR, Gordon RL . Age does not affect airway pH and ammonia as determined by exhaled breath measurements. Lung 2006; 184: 195–200.
Montuschi P, Collins JV, Ciabattoni G, Lazzeri N, Corradi M, Kharitonov SA et al. Exhaled 8-isoprostane as an in vivo biomarker of lung oxidative stress in patients with COPD and healthy smokers. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2000; 162: 1175–1177.
Inonu H, Doruk S, Sahin S, Erkorkmaz U, Celik D, Celikel S et al. Oxidative stress levels in exhaled breath condensate associated with COPD and smoking. Respir Care 2012; 57: 413–419.
Taito S, Sekikawa K, Domen S, Konishi K, Kimura T, Takahashi M et al. Pulmonary oxidative stress is induced by maximal exercise in young cigarette smokers. Nicotine Tob Res 2012; 14: 243–247.
Riediker M, Danuser B . Exhaled breath condensate pH is increased after moderate exercise. J Aerosol Med 2007; 20: 13–18.
Kullmann T, Barta I, Antus B, Horváth I . Drinking influences exhaled breath condensate acidity. Lung 2008; 186: 263–268.
Kashyap B, Reddy PS . Micronuclei assay of exfoliated oral buccal cells: means to assess the nuclear abnormalities in different diseases. J Cancer Res Ther 2012; 8: 184–191.
Holland N, Bolognesi C, Kirsch-Volders M, Bonassi S, Zeiger E, Knasmueller S et al. The micronucleus assay in human buccal cells as a tool for biomonitoring DNA damage: the HUMN project perspective on current status and knowledge gaps. Mutat Res 2008; 659: 93–108.
Celik A, Cavaş T, Ergene-Gözükara S . Cytogenetic biomonitoring in petrol station attendants: micronucleus test in exfoliated buccal cells. Mutagenesis 2003; 18: 417–421.
Bonassi S, Coskun E, Ceppi M, Lando C, Bolognesi C, Burgaz S et al. The HUman MicroNucleus project on eXfoLiated buccal cells (HUMN(XL)): the role of life-style, host factors, occupational exposures, health status, and assay protocol. Mutat Res 2011; 728: 88–97.
Ceppi M, Biasotti B, Fenech M, Bonassi S . Human population studies with the exfoliated buccal micronucleus assay: statistical and epidemiological issues. Mutat Res 2010; 705: 11–19.
Fenech M, Holland N, Zeiger E, Chang WP, Burgaz S, Thomas et al. The HUMN and HUMNxL international collaboration projects on human micronucleus assays in lymphocytes and buccal cells—past, present and future. Mutagenesis 2011; 26: 239–245.
Celik A, Yildirim S, Ekinci SY, Taşdelen B . Bio-monitoring for the genotoxic assessment in road construction workers as determined by the buccal micronucleus cytome assay. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 2013; 92: 265–270.
Khan MI, Ahmad I, Mahdi AA, Akhtar MJ, Islam N, Ashquin M et al. Elevated blood lead levels and cytogenetic markers in buccal epithelial cells of painters in India: genotoxicity in painters exposed to lead containing paints. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int 2010; 17: 1347–1354.
Pinto D, Ceballos JM, GarcÃa G, Guzmán P, Del Razo LM, Vera E et al. Increased cytogenetic damage in outdoor painters. Mutat Res 2000; 467: 105–111.
González-Yebra AL, Kornhauser C, Barbosa-Sabanero G, Pérez-Luque EL, Wrobel K . Exposure to organic solvents and cytogenetic damage in exfoliated cells of the buccal mucosa from shoe workers. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 2009; 82: 373–380.
Sailaja N, Chandrasekhar M, Rekhadevi PV, Mahboob M, Rahman MF, Vuyyuri SB et al. Genotoxic evaluation of workers employed in pesticide production. Mutat Res 2006; 609: 74–80.
Karahalil B, Karakaya AE, Burgaz S . The micronucleus assay in exfoliated buccal cells: application to occupational exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Mutat Res 1999; 442: 29–35.
Pastor S, Creus A, Xamena N, Siffel C, Marcos R . Occupational exposure to pesticides and cytogenetic damage: results of a Hungarian population study using the micronucleus assay in lymphocytes and buccal cells. Environ Mol Mutagen 2002; 40: 101–109.
Pastor S, Gutiérrez S, Creus A, Cebulska-Wasilewska A, Marcos R . Micronuclei in peripheral blood lymphocytes and buccal epithelial cells of Polish farmers exposed to pesticides. Mutat Res 2001; 495: 147–156.
Pastor S, Gutiérrez S, Creus A, Xamena N, Piperakis S, Marcos R . Cytogenetic analysis of Greek farmers using the micronucleus assay in peripheral lymphocytes and buccal cells. Mutagenesis 2001; 16: 539–545.
Coronas MV, Pereira TS, Rocha JA, Lemos AT, Fachel JM, Salvadori DM et al. Genetic biomonitoring of an urban population exposed to mutagenic airborne pollutants. Environ Int 2009; 35: 1023–1029.
Huen K, Gunn L, Duramad P, Jeng M, Scalf R, Holland N . Application of a geographic information system to explore associations between air pollution and micronucleus frequencies in African American children and adults. Environ Mol Mutagen 2006; 47: 236–246.
Chen C, Arjomandi M, Qin H, Balmes J, Tager I, Holland N . Cytogenetic damage in buccal epithelia and peripheral lymphocytes of young healthy individuals exposed to ozone. Mutagenesis 2006; 21: 131–137.
Valverde M, del Carmen López M, López I, Sánchez I, Fortoul TI, Ostrosky-Wegman et al. DNA damage in leukocytes and buccal and nasal epithelial cells of individuals exposed to air pollution in Mexico City. Environ Mol Mutagen 1997; 30: 147–152.
Stich HF, Stich W, Rosin MP, Vallejera MO . Use of the micronucleus test to monitor the effect of vitamin A, beta-carotene and canthaxanthin on the buccal mucosa of betel nut/tobacco chewers. Int J Cancer 1984; 34: 745–750.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Competing interests
The authors declare no conflict of interest
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Mirowsky, J., Gordon, T. Noninvasive effects measurements for air pollution human studies: methods, analysis, and implications. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol 25, 354–380 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1038/jes.2014.93
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/jes.2014.93
Keywords
This article is cited by
-
Respiratory Disease Occupational Biomonitoring Collaborative Project (ROBoCoP): A longitudinal pilot study and implementation research in the Parisian transport company
Journal of Occupational Medicine and Toxicology (2021)
-
Individual exposure to urban air pollution and its correlation with placental angiogenic markers in the first trimester of pregnancy, in São Paulo, Brazil
Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2021)
-
The effects of facemasks on airway inflammation and endothelial dysfunction in healthy young adults: a double-blind, randomized, controlled crossover study
Particle and Fibre Toxicology (2018)
